The Postcards
…I’m imposing a severe censorship on myself…
Several days went by without any word from the
philosophy teacher. Tomorrow was
Thursday, May 17— Norway’s national day. School would be closed on the 18th as
well. As they walked home after school Joanna suddenly exclaimed, “Let’s go camping!”
Sophie’s immediate
reaction was that she couldn’t be
away from the house for long. But
then she said, “Sure, why not?”
A couple of hours later Joanna arrived at Sophie’s door with a large backpack. Sophie had packed hers as
well, and she also had the tent. They
both had bedrolls and sweaters, groundsheets and flashlights, large-size thermos bottles and plenty of their favorite
food.
When Sophie’s mother
got home around five o’clock, she
gave them a sermon about what they must and must
not do. She also insisted on knowing where they were going to set up camp.
They told her they intended to make for Grouse Top. They might be lucky enough to hear the mating call of the grouse next morning.
Sophie had an ulterior motive for choosing that
particular spot. She thought that Grouse Top must be pretty close to the major’s cabin. Something was urging her to return to it, but she didn’t dare go
alone.
The two girls walked down the path that led from the little cul-de-sac just beyond Sophie’s garden gate. They
chatted about this and that, and
Sophie enjoyed taking a little time
off from everything having to
do with philosophy.
By eight o’clock they had pitched their tent in a clearing by Grouse Top. They
had prepared themselves for the night
and their bedrolls were unfolded. When they had eaten their sandwiches, Sophie asked,
“Have you ever heard of the major’s cabin?”
“The major’s cabin?”
“There’s a hut in the woods somewhere near
here ... by a little lake. A strange man
lived there once, a major, that’s why it’s called the major’s cabin.”
“Does anyone
live there now?” “Do you want to go
and see?” “Where is it?”
Sophie
pointed in among the trees.
Joanna was not particularly eager, but in the end they set out. The sun was low in
the sky.
They walked in between the tall pine trees at first, but soon they were pushing
their way through bush and thicket. Eventually they made
their way down to a path. Could it be the path Sophie had followed that Sunday morning?
It must
have been—almost at once she could
point to something shining between
the trees to the right of the path.
“It’s in
there,” she said.
They were
soon standing at the edge of the small lake. Sophie gazed at the cabin
across
the water. All the windows were now shuttered
up. The red building was the most deserted place she had seen for ages.
Joanna
turned toward her. “Do we have to walk on the water?” “Of course not. We’ll row.”
Sophie
pointed down into the reeds. There lay the rowboat, just as before.
“Have you been here before?”
Sophie shook her head. Trying to explain her
previous visit would be far too complicated. And then she would have to tell
her friend about Alberto Knox and the philosophy course as well.
They laughed and joked as they rowed across the
water. When they reached the opposite
bank, Sophie made sure they drew the boat well up on land.
They went to the front door. As there was
obviously nobody in the cabin, Joanna tried the door handle.
“Locked... you didn’t expect it to be open, did you?” “Maybe we can find a key,” said Sophie.
She began
to search in the crevices of the
stonework foundation.
“Oh, let’s
go back to the tent instead,”
said Joanna after a few minutes. But just then Sophie exclaimed,
“Here it is! I found it!”
She held
up the key triumphantly. She put it
in the lock and the door swung
open.
The two friends sneaked inside as if they were up to something
criminal. It was
cold and
dark in the cabin.
“We
can’t see a thing!” said Joanna.
But Sophie had thought of that. She took a box
of matches out of her pocket and
struck one. They only had time to see
that the cabin was deserted before the
match went out. Sophie struck
another, and this time she noticed a stump of candle in a
wrought-iron candlestick on top of the stove.
She lit it with the third match
and the little room became light enough for them to look around.
“Isn’t
it odd that such a small
candle can light up so much darkness?” said
Sophie.
Her friend
nodded.
“But somewhere
the light disappears into the dark,” Sophie went on. “Actually, darkness has no
existence of its own. It’s only a lack of light.”
Joanna
shivered. “That’s creepy! Come
on, let’s go...” “Not before we’ve looked in the mirror.”
Sophie pointed to the brass mirror
hanging above the chest of drawers, just as before.
“That’s
really pretty!” said Joanna. “But it’s a magic mirror.”
“Mirror,
mirror on the wall, who is the fairest of
them all?”
“I’m not kidding, Joanna. I am sure you
can look in it and see something
on the other side.”
“Are you sure you’ve never been here before?
And why is it so amusing to
scare me all the time?”
Sophie
could not answer that one. “Sorry.”
Now it was Joanna who suddenly discovered something lying on the floor in the corner.
It was a small box. Joanna picked it
up.
“Postcards,” she said. Sophie gasped.
“Don’t
touch them! Do you hear—don’t you dare touch them!”
Joanna jumped.
She threw the box down as if she had burnt herself. The postcards were strewn
all over the floor. The next second
she began to laugh.
“They’re
only postcards!”
Joanna sat down on the floor and started to pick
them up. After a while Sophie sat down beside her.
“Lebanon ... Lebanon ... Lebanon ... They are all postmarked in Lebanon,” Joanna discovered.
“I know,”
said Sophie.
Joanna
sat bolt upright and looked Sophie in the eye. “So you have been here
before!”
“Yes, I
guess I have.”
It suddenly struck her that it would have been a whole
lot easier if she had just admitted
she had been here before.
It couldn’t do any harm if she let
her friend in on the mysterious things she had experienced
during the last few days.
“I didn’t
want to tell you before we were here.” Joanna began to read the cards.
“They are
all addressed to someone called
Hilde Moller Knag.” Sophie had not touched the cards yet.
“What address?”
Joanna
read: “Hilde Moller Knag, c/o Alberto Knox, Lillesand,
Norway.” Sophie breathed a sigh of relief. She
was afraid they would say c/o Sophie
Amundsen.
She began
to inspect them more closely.
“April
28 ... May 4 ... May 6 ... May 9 ... They were stamped a few days ago.” “But there’s something else. All the postmarks are Norwegian! Look at that...
UN Battalion ... the stamps are Norwegian too!”
“I think that’s the way they do it. They have to be sort of neutral, so they have their
own Norwegian post office down there.”
“But how
do they get the mail home?”
“The air force, probably.”
Sophie put the candlestick on the floor, and the two friends began to read the
cards. Joanna arranged them in
chronological order and read the
first card:
Dear Hilde, I can’t wait to come home to
Lillesand. I expect to land at Kjevik airport early evening on Midsummer Eve.
I would much rather have arrived in time
for your
15th birthday but I’m under military
command of course. To make up
for it, I promise to devote all my loving
care to the huge present you are
getting for your birthday.
With love from someone
who is always thinking about his daughter’s
future. P.S. I’m sending a copy of
this card to our mutual
friend. I know you
understand, Hilde.
At the moment I’m being very
secretive, but you will understand.
Sophie
picked up the next card:
Dear Hilde, Down here we take one day at a time. If there is one thing
I’m going to remember from these months
in Lebanon, it’s all this waiting. But
I’m doing what I can so you have as
great a 15th birthday as possible. I can’t say any more at the moment. I’m
imposing
a severe censorship on myself. Love, Dad.
The two friends sat breathless with excitement. Neither of them spoke, they just read what was written on the cards:
My dear child, What I would like best
would be to send you my secret thoughts with a white dove. But they are all out
of white doves in Lebanon. If there
is anything
this war-torn
country needs, it is white doves. I pray the UN will truly manage to make
peace in the world some day.
P.S. Maybe your birthday present can be shared
with other people. Let’s talk about that when I get home. But you still have no idea what I’m talking about, right? Love from
someone who has plenty of time
to think for the both of us.
When they
had read six cards, there was only one left. It read:
Dear Hilde, I am now so bursting with all these secrets for your birthday that I
have to stop myself several times a
day from calling home and
blowing the whole thing. It is something
that simply grows and grows. And as
you know, when a thing gets bigger and bigger it’s more difficult to keep it to yourself. Love from Dad.
P.S. Some
day you will meet a girl called Sophie. To give you both a chance to get to know more about each other before
you meet, I have begun sending her copies of all the cards I send to you. I expect she will soon begin to catch on, Hilde. As
yet she knows no more than you. She
has a girlfriend called Joanna. Maybe site can be of help?
After reading the last card, Joanna and Sophie sat quite still staring wildly at each
other. Joanna was holding Sophie’s wrist in a tight grip.
“I’m scared,” she said. “So am I.”
“When was the last card
stamped?” Sophie looked again at the card. “May 16,” she said. “That’s
today.”
“It can’t
be!” cried Joanna, almost angrily.
They examined
the postmark carefully, but there was
no mistaking
it... 05-16-
90.
“It’s impossible,” insisted
Joanna. “And I can’t imagine who could have written
it. It
must be someone who knows us. But how could they know we would come here on this particular day?”
Joanna was by far the more scared of the two. The business with Hilde and her father was nothing new to Sophie.
“I think it has
something to do with the brass mirror.”
Joanna jumped again.
“You don’t actually think the cards come
fluttering out of the mirror the minute they are stamped in Lebanon?”
“Do you
have a better explanation?” “No.”
Sophie got to her feet and held the candle up in front of the two portraits on the wall. Joanna came over and peered at the pictures.
“Berkeley and Bjerkely. What
does that mean?” “I have no idea.”
The candle
was almost burnt down. “Let’s go,”
said Joanna. “Come on!” “We must
just take the mirror with us.”
Sophie reached up and unhooked the large brass mirror from the wall above the chest of
drawers. Joanna tried to stop her but Sophie would not be deterred.
When they got outside it was as dark as a May
night can get. There was enough light in the sky
for the clear outlines of bushes and
trees to be visible. The small lake lay like a reflection of the sky
above it. The two girls rowed pensively across to the other side.
Neither
of them spoke much on the way back to the tent, but each knew that
the
other was
thinking intensely about what they had seen.
Now and then a frightened bird would start up, and a couple of times
they heard the hooting of an owl.
As soon as they reached the tent, they crawled into their bedrolls.
Joanna refused to have the mirror
inside the tent. Before they fell
asleep, they agreed that it was scary enough, knowing it was
just outside the tent flap. Sophie
had also taken the postcards and put them in
one of the pockets of her backpack.
They woke early next morning. Sophie was up
first. She put her boots on and went outside the tent. There lay the large mirror in the grass, covered with dew.
Sophie wiped the dew off with her sweater and gazed down at her own reflection. It was
as if she was looking down and up at
herself at the same time.
Luckily she found no early morning
postcard from Lebanon.
Above the broad clearing behind the tent a
ragged morning mist
was drifting slowly into little wads of cotton. Small birds were
chirping energetically but Sophie could neither see nor hear any grouse.
The girls put on extra sweaters and ate their breakfast outside the
tent. Their conversation soon turned to the major’s
cabin and the mysterious cards.
After breakfast they folded up the tent and set off for home. Sophie carried the large mirror
under her arm. From time to time she had to rest—Joanna refused to touch
it.
As they approached the outskirts of the town they heard a few sporadic shots.
Sophie recalled what Hilde’s father had written
about war-torn Lebanon, and she re- alized how lucky she was to have been born
in a peaceful country. The “shots” they
heard came from innocent fireworks celebrating the national holiday.
Sophie invited Joanna in for a cup of hot
chocolate. Her mother was very curious
to know where they had found the mirror.
Sophie told her they had found it outside the major’s
cabin, and her mother repeated the
story about nobody having lived there for
many years.
When Joanna had gone, Sophie put on a red dress. The rest of the Norwegian
national day passed quite normally. In the evening,
the TV news had a feature on how the Norwegian UN battalion had celebrated the
day in Lebanon. Sophie’s eyes were glued to the screen. One of the men she
was seeing could be Hilde’s father.
The last thing Sophie did on May 17 was to hang the large mirror on the wall in
her room. The following morning there was a new brown envelope in the den. She tore it open at once and
began to read.
Two Cultures
... the
only way to avoid floating in a vacuum …
It
won’t be long now before we meet, my dear Sophie.
I thought you would return to the major’s
cabin—that’s why I left all the cards
from Hilde’s father there. That was the
only way they could be delivered to her. Don’t worry about how she will get
them. A lot can happen before June 15.
We have seen how the Hellenistic philosophers recycled
the ideas of earlier philosophers. Some even attempted to turn their predecessors into
religious prophets. Plotinus
came close to acclaiming
Plato as the savior of humanity.
But
as we know, another savior was born during the period we have just been
discussing—and that happened
outside the Greco-Roman area. I refer to Jesus of Nazareth. In this chapter we will see how Christianity gradually began to permeate the Greco-Roman world—more or less the same way that
Hilde’s world
has gradually begun to permeate
ours.
Jesus was a jew, and the Jews belong to Semitic culture.
The Greeks and the Romans
belong to Indo-European culture. European
civilization has its roots in both cultures. But before we take a closer look at the
way Christianity influenced Greco-Roman culture, we must
examine these roots.
THE INDO-EUROPEANS
By
Indo-European we mean all the nations and cultures that use Indo- European languages. This covers all European nations except those whose inhabitants speak one of the Finno-Ugrian languages
(Lapp, Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian) or Basque.
In addition, most Indian and Iranian
languages belong to the Indo-European family of languages.
About 4,000 years ago, the primitive Indo-Europeans lived in areas bordering on the Black Sea and the
Caspian Sea. From there, waves of these Indo-European tribes began to wander southeast into Iran and India, southwest to
Greece, Italy, and Spain, westward through
Central Europe to France
and Britain, northwestward to Scandinavia and northward to Eastern
Europe and Russia. Wherever they went,
the Indo-Europeans assimilated
with the
local culture, although Indo-European
languages and Indo-European
religion came to play a dominant role.
The
ancient Indian Veda scriptures and Greek philosophy, and for that matter Snorri Sturluson’s mythology are all written in related languages. But it is not only the languages
that are related. Related languages often lead to related ideas. This is why we usually
speak of an Indo-European “culture.”
The culture of the Indo-Europeans
was influenced most of all by their belief in many gods. This is called polytheism.
The names of these gods as well as much of the religious terminology
recur throughout the whole Indo- European area. I’ll give you a few examples:
The
ancient Indians worshipped the celestial
god Dyaus, which in Sanskrit means the sky, day, heaven/ Heaven. In Greek this god is called Zeus,
in Latin, Jupiter (actually iov-pater,
or “Father Heaven”), and in Old Norse, Tyr. So the names Dyaus, Zeus, lov, and Tyr are dialectal variants
of the same word.
You
probably learned that the
old Vikings believed in gods which
they called Aser. This is another word we find recurring
all over the Indo-European
area. In Sanskrit, the ancient classical
language of India, the gods are called asura and in Persian
Ahura. Another word for “god” is deva in Sanskrit, claeva
in Persian, deus in Latin and tivurr in Old Norse.
In
Viking times, people also believed
in a special group of fertility gods
(such as Niord, Freyr, and Freyja). These gods were referred to by a special
collective name, vaner, a word that
is related to the Latin name for the goddess of fertility, Venus. Sanskrit has the
related word van/, which means
“desire.”
There is also a clear affinity
to be observed in some of the Indo-
European myths. In Snorri’s
stories of the Old Norse gods,
some of the myths are similar to the myths of India that were handed down from
two to three thousand years earlier.
Although Snorri’s myths
reflect the Nordic
environment and the Indian myths reflect
the Indian, many of them retain
traces of a common origin. We can see these traces most clearly in myths
about immortal potions and the struggles
of the gods against the monsters of chaos.
We
can also see clear similarities in modes of thought
across the Indo- European cultures. A typical likeness
is the way the world is seen
as being the subject of a drama in which the forces of Good and Evil confront each other in a relentless struggle.
Indo-Europeans have therefore
often tried to “predict” how the battles
between Good and Evil will turn out.
One
could say with some truth that it was no accident
that Greek philosophy originated in the Indo-European sphere of culture.
Indian, Greek, and Norse mythology all have obvious
leanings toward a philosophic, or “speculative,” view of the world.
The
Indo-Europeans sought “insight”
into the history of the
world. We can even trace a particular word for “insight” or “knowledge” from one culture to another all over the Indo-European world. In Sanskrit it is vidya.
The word is identical to the Greek word idea,
which was so important in Plato’s
philosophy. From Latin, we have the
word video, but on Roman ground the
word simply means to see. For us, “I see” can mean “I understand,”
and in the cartoons, a light bulb can
flash on above Woody Woodpecker’s head when he gets a bright idea. (Not until our own day did “seeing” become synonymous
with staring at the TV screen.) In
English we know the words wise and wisdom—in German, wissen (to know). Norwegian
has the word viten, which has the same root as the Indian word
vidya, the Greek idea, and the Latin video.
All in all, we can establish
that sight was the most important
of the senses for Indo-Europeans.
The literature of Indians, Greeks, Persians, and Teutons alike was characterized by great cosmic visions. (There is that word
again: “vision” comes from the Latin verb “video.”} It was also characteristic for Indo-European culture to make pictures and sculptures of the gods and of mythical events.
Lastly, the Indo-Europeans had a cyc//c view of history. This is the belief that history
goes in circles, just like the seasons of the year. There is thus no
beginning and no end to history,
but there are different civilizations that
rise and fall in an eternal
interplay between birth and death.
Both of the two great Oriental religions, Hinduism and Buddhism,
are Indo-European in origin.
So is Greek philosophy, and we can see a number of clear
parallels between Hinduism and Buddhism on the one hand and
Greek philosophy on the other. Even today,
Hinduism and Buddhism are strongly imbued with philosophical reflection.
Not
infrequently we find in Hinduism
and Buddhism an emphasis on the
fact that the deity is present in all things (pantheism) and that man can
become one with God through religious insight. (Remember Plotinus, Sophie?) To achieve this requires the practice of deep self-communion or meditation. Therefore in the Orient, passivity and seclusion can be religious ideals. In ancient Greece, too, there were many people who
believed in an ascetic, or religiously secluded,
way of life for the salvation
of the soul Many aspects of
medieval monastic life can be traced back to beliefs dating from the
Greco-Roman civilization.
Similarly, the transmigration of the soul,
or the cycle of rebirth, is a
fundamental belief in many Indo-European
cultures. For more than 2,500 years,
the ultimate purpose of life for
every Indian has been the release from the cycle of rebirth. Plato also believed
in the transmigration of the soul.
The Semites
Let
us now turn to the Semites, Sophie. They belong to a completely
different culture with a completely different language.
The Semites originated in the Arabian Peninsula, but they also migrated to different
parts of the world.
The Jews lived far from their home for more than 2,000 years. Semitic history and religion reached furthest
away from its roots by way of
Christendom, although Semitic culture also became widely spread via Islam.
All three Western religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—share a Semitic background. The Muslims’ holy scripture, the Koran, and the Old
Testament were both written in the Semitic family of languages. One of the Old Testament words for “god” has the
same semantic root as the Muslim
Allah. (The word “allah” means, quite simply,
“god.”)
When we get to Christianity the
picture becomes more complicated. Christianity
also has a Semitic background, but the New Testament was written in Greek, and when the
Christian theology or creed was formulated, it was influenced by Greek and Latin, and thus also by Hellenistic philosophy.
The
Indo-Europeans believed in many different gods. It was just as characteristic for the Semites that from earliest times they were united in their belief in one God. This is called monotheism. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all share
the same fundamental idea that there is only one God.
The
Semites also had in common a linear view of history. In other words,
history was seen as an ongoing line. In the beginning God created the world and that was the beginning
of history. But one day history will end and that will be
Judgment Day, when God judges the living and the dead.
The
role played by history is an important feature of these three Western religions. The belief is that God intervenes
in the course of history—even that history exists in
order that God may manifest his will in the world, just as he
once led Abraham to the “Promised Land,” he leads mankind’s steps through
history to the Day of Judgment. When that day
comes, all evil in the world will be destroyed.
With their strong emphasis
on God’s activity in the course of history,
the Semites were preoccupied with the writing
of history for many thousands of years. And these historical roots constitute the
very core of their holy scrip-
tures.
Even today the city of
Jerusalem is a significant religious
center for Jews, Christians, and Muslims alike. This indicates something
of the common background of these three religions.
The
city comprises prominent
(Jewish) synagogues, (Christian) churches, and (Islamic) mosques.
It is therefore deeply tragic that Jerusalem should have become a bone of contention—with
people killing each other by
the thousand because they cannot agree on who is to have ascendancy over this
“Eternal City.” May the UN one day succeed in making Jerusalem
a holy shrine for all three
religions! (We shall not go any further
into this more prac- tical part of our philosophy course for the moment. We will leave it entirely to Hilde’s father. You must
have gathered by now that he is a UN observer
in Lebanon. To be more precise, I can reveal that he is serving
as a major. If you are
beginning to see some connection, that’s quite as it should be. On the other hand, let’s not anticipate events!)
We
said that the most important
of the senses for Indo-Europeans was sight. How important
hearing was to the Semitic
cultures is just as interesting.
It is no accident that the Jewish creed begins with the words: “Hear, O Israel!” In the Old Testament we read how the people “heard” the
word of the Lord, and the Jewish prophets usually began their sermons with the words: “Thus
spake Jehovah (God).”
“Hearing” the word of God is also emphasized in Christianity. The religious ceremonies of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are all characterized by reading
aloud or “reciting.”
I
also mentioned that the Indo-Europeans always made pictorial
representations or sculptures of their gods. It was just as characteristic for
the Semites that they never did. They were
not supposed to create pictures or sculptures
of God or the “deity.”
The Old Testament commands that the
people shall not make any image of God. This is still law today both for Judaism and Islam. Within Islam there
is moreover a general aversion
to both photography and art, because people should not compete
with God in “cre- ating” anything.
But
the Christian churches
are full of pictures of Jesus and God, you are
probably thinking. True enough, Sophie,
but this is just one example
of how Christendom was influenced by the Greco-Roman world. (In the Greek Or-
thodox Church—that is, in Greece and in Russia— “graven images,”
or sculptures and crucifixes, from Bible stories are still forbidden.)
In
contrast to the great religions of the
Orient, the three Western religions emphasize that there is a
distance between God and his creation. The purpose is not to be released from
the cycle of rebirth, but to be
redeemed from sin and blame. Moreover, religious life is characterized more by prayer, sermons, and the study of the scriptures than by self-communion and meditation.
Israel
I
have no intention of competing with your religion
teacher, Sophie,
but let us just make a quick summary of Christianity’s Jewish background.
It
all began when God created the world. You can read how that happened on
the very first page of the Bible. Then mankind
began to rebel against God. Their punishment was not only
that Adam and Eve were driven from the Garden of Eden—Death also came into the world.
Man’s disobedience to God is a theme
that runs right through the Bible.
If we go further on in the Book of Genesis we read about the Flood and Noah’s Ark. Then we read that God made a covenant with Abraham and his seed. This covenant—or pact—was that Abraham and all his seed would
keep the Lord’s
commandments. In exchange God
promised to protect all the children of Abraham.
This covenant was renewed when Moses was given the Ten
Commandments on Mount Sinai around the year 1200 B.C. At that time the Israelites had long been held as slaves
in Egypt, but with God’s help they were
led back to the land of Israel.
About 1,000 years before Christ—and
therefore long before there was anything called Greek philosophy—we hear of three great kings of Israel.
The first was Saul, then came David, and after him came Solomon. Now all the Israelites were united in one kingdom, and under King David, especially, they experienced a period of political, military, and cultural glory.
When kings were chosen,
they were anointed
by the people. They thus received the title Messiah,
which means “the anointed one.” In a religious
sense kings
were looked upon as a go-between
between God and his people. The king could therefore also be called the “Son of God” and the country
could be called
the “Kingdom of God.”
But
before long Israel began to lose
its power and the kingdom was divided
into a Northern kingdom (Israel) and a Southern
kingdom (Judea). In
722 B.C.
the Northern kingdom was conquered by the Assyrians
and it lost all political and religious significance.
The Southern kingdom fared no better,
being conquered by the Babylonians in 586 B.C. Its temple was destroyed
and most of its
people were carried off to slavery
in Babylon. This “Babylonian captivity” lasted until 539 B.C. when the people were permitted
to return to Jerusalem, and the great temple was restored. But for the rest of the period before the birth of Christ
the Jews continued to live under foreign
domination.
The
question Jews constantly asked themselves was why the Kingdom
of David was destroyed and why catastrophe after catastrophe rained down
on them, for God had promised to hold Israel in his hand. But the people had
also promised to keep God’s commandments. It gradually became widely
accepted that God was punishing
Israel for her disobedience.
From around 750 B.C. various
prophets began to come forward preaching God’s wrath over Israel for
not keeping his commandments. One day God would hold a Day of Judgment
over Israel, they said. We call prophecies like
these Doomsday prophecies.
In
the course of time there came other
prophets who preached that God
would redeem a chosen few of his people and send them a “Prince of Peace”
or a king of the House of David. He would restore
the old Kingdom of David and
the people would have a future of prosperity.
“The people that walked in darkness
will see a great light,” said the
prophet Isaiah, and “they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them
hath the light shined.” We call prophecies like these prophecies of re- demption.
To
sum up: The children of Israel
lived happily under King David. But
later on when their situation
deteriorated, their prophets
began to proclaim that there would one day come a
new king of the House of David. This “Messiah,” or “Son of God,” would
“redeem” the people, restore Israel to greatness, and found a “Kingdom of
God.”
Jesus
I
assume you are still with me, Sophie? The key
words are “Messiah,” “Son of God,”
and “Kingdom of God.” At first it was all taken politically. In the time of Jesus, there were a lot of people who imagined
that there would come a new “Messiah” in the sense of a
political, military, and religious leader of the caliber of King David. This “savior”
was thus looked upon as a national deliverer who would put an end to the
suffering of the Jews under Roman domination.
Well and good. But there were also many people who were more farsighted. For the past two hundred years there had been prophets who
believed that the promised “Messiah”
would be the savior of the whole world. He would not simply free the Israelites
from a foreign yoke, he would save all mankind
from sin and blame—and not least, from death. The longing for “salvation” in the sense of redemption was widespread all over the Hellenistic
world.
So
along comes Jesus of Nazareth. He was not the only man ever to
have come forward as the promised “Messiah.”
Jesus also uses the words “Son of God,” the “Kingdom of God,” and “redemption.” In doing this he maintains the link with the old
prophets. He rides into Jerusalem and allows himself to be acclaimed by the
crowds as the savior of the people, thus
playing directly on the way the old kings were installed in a characteristic “throne accession
ritual.” He also allows himself
to be anointed by the people. “The time is fulfilled,” he says, and “the Kingdom
of God is at hand.”
But
here is a very important
point: Jesus distinguished himself from the other
“messiahs” by stating
clearly that he was not a military or political rebel. His mission was much greater. He
preached salvation and God’s forgiveness for
everyone. To the people he met on his way he said “Your sins are forgiven
you for his name’s sake.”
Handing out the “remission of sins” in
this way was totally unheard
of. And what was even worse, he addressed God as “Father”
(Abba). This was absolutely unprecedented in the Jewish community at that time. It was therefore not long before there
arose a wave of protest against him among the scribes.
So
here was the situation:
a great many people at the time of Jesus
were waiting for a Messiah who would reestablish the Kingdom of God with a great flourish of trumpets (in other words,
with fire and sword). The expression “Kingdom of God” was indeed a recurring theme in the preachings of Jesus— but in a much broader sense. Jesus said that
the “Kingdom of God” is loving thy neighbor, compassion for the weak and the poor, and forgiveness of those who have erred.
This was a dramatic
shift in the
meaning of an age-old expression with
warlike overtones. People were expecting a military leader who would
soon proclaim the establishment of the Kingdom of God, and along comes Jesus in kirtle and sandals
telling them that the Kingdom of God— or the “new
covenant”—is that you must “love thy neighbor as thyself.” But that was not
all, Sophie, he also said that we must love our enemies. When they strike us,
we must not retaliate; we must even turn the other cheek. And we must
forgive—not seven times but seventy
times seven.
Jesus himself demonstrated that he
was not above talking to harlots,
corrupt usurers, and the politically subversive. But he went even further:
he said that a good-for-nothing who has squandered all his father’s
inheritance— or a humble publican who has pocketed official
funds— is righteous
before God when he repents and prays for forgiveness, so great is God’s mercy.
But
hang on—he went a step further:
Jesus said that such sinners were
more righteous in the eyes of God and more deserving of God’s forgiveness than the spotless Pharisees
who went around flaunting their virtue.
Jesus pointed out that nobody
can earn God’s mercy. We cannot redeem ourselves (as many of the Greeks believed). The severe ethical
demands made by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount were not only to teach what the will of God meant, but also to show that no man is righteous in the
eyes of God. God’s mercy is boundless, but we have to turn to God and pray for his forgiveness.
I shall leave a more thorough study of Jesus and his teachings
to your religion teacher. He
will have quite a task. I hope he
will succeed in showing what an exceptional
man Jesus was. In an ingenious way he
used the
language of
his time to give the old war cries a totally new and broader content. It’s not surprising that he ended on the Cross. His radical tidings of
redemption were at odds with so many interests and power factors
that he had to be removed.
When we talked about Socrates, we
saw how dangerous it could be
to appeal to people’s reason. With Jesus we see how dangerous it can be to
demand unconditional brotherly
love and unconditional forgiveness. Even
in the world of today we can see how mighty powers can come apart at the seams
when confronted with simple demands
for peace, love, food for the poor, and amnesty for the enemies of the state.
You
may recall how incensed Plato was
that the most righteous man in
Athens had to forfeit his life.
According to Christian teachings, Jesus was the only
righteous person who ever lived. Nevertheless he was condemned
to death. Christians say he died for the sake of humanity. This is what Christians
usually call the “Passion” of Christ Jesus was the “suffering servant” who
bore the sins of humanity in order that we could be “atoned” and saved from God’s wrath.
Paul
A
few days after Jesus had been crucified and buried, rumors spread that
he had risen from the grave. He thereby
proved that he was no ordinary man. He truly was the “Son of
God.”
We
could say that the Christian Church was founded on Easter Morning with the rumors of the resurrection of Jesus. This is
already established by Paul: “And if Christ be not risen, then is our preaching vain and your faith is also vain.”
Now
all mankind could hope for the resurrection of the body, for it was to
save us that Jesus was crucified. But,
dear Sophie, remember that from a Jewish point of view there was no question of the “immortality of the soul” or
any form of “transmigration”; that was a Greek—and therefore an Indo-
European—thought. According to Christianity there is nothing in man—no “soul,” for example— that is in itself
immortal. Although the Christian Church believes in the “resurrection of the body and eternal
life,” it is by God’s miracle
that we are saved from death and “damnation.” It is neither
through our own merit nor through any natural—or innate—ability.
So
the early Christians began to preach the “glad tidings”
of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ. Through
his mediation, the
“Kingdom of God” was about to become a reality.
Now the entire world could be won for Christ.
(The word “christ” is a Greek translation of the Hebrew word “messiah,” the anointed one.)
A
few years after the death of Jesus, the
Pharisee Paul converted to Christianity. Through his many missionary journeys across the whole of the
Greco-Roman world he made Christianity a worldwide
religion. We hear of
this in the Acts of the Apostles. Paul’s preaching and guidance for the Christians is known to us from the many epistles written
by him to the early Christian congregations.
He
then turns up in Athens.
He wanders straight
into the city square of the philosophic capital.
And it is said that “his spirit was stirred in him, when he
saw the city wholly given to idolatry.” He visited the Jewish synagogue in Athens
and conversed with Epicurean and Stoic philosophers. They took him
up to the Areopagos hill
and asked him: “May we know what this new doctrine, whereof
thou speakest, is? For
thou bringest certain strange things to
our ears: we would know therefore what these things mean.”
Can
you imagine it, Sophie? A Jew suddenly appears in the Athenian
marketplace and starts talking about a
savior who was hung on a cross and later rose from the grave. Even from this visit of Paul in Athens we sense a coming collision between Greek philosophy and the doctrine of Christian
redemption. But Paul clearly succeeds in getting the Athenians to listen to him. From the Areopagos—and beneath
the proud temples
of the Acropolis— he makes the following speech:
“Ye
men of Athens, I perceive
that in all things ye are too
superstitious. For as I passed by, and beheld
your devotions, I found an altar with this
inscription, TO THE UNKNOWN GOD. Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you.
God
that made the world and all things therein, seeing that he is Lord of
heaven and earth, dwelleth not in temples made with hands; neither
is wor- shipped with men’s hands, as though he needed any
thing, seeing he giveth
to all
life, and breath, and all things. And
hath made of one blood all nations of
men for to dwell on all the face of the earth, and hath determined the times
before appointed, and the bounds of their habitation; that they should seek the Lord,
if haply they might feel after him
and find him, though he be not far from every
one of us. For in him we live, and move, and have our being; as certain
also of your own poets have said, For we are also his offspring. Forasmuch then as we are the offspring of God, we ought
not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver,
or stone, graven
by art and man’s device. And the times of this ignorance God winked at; but now commandeth all men everywhere to repent:
Because he hath appointed
a day, in the which he will judge the world in righteousness by that
man whom he hath ordained; whereof he
hath given as- surance unto all men, in that
he hath raised him from the dead.”
Paul in Athens, Sophie!
Christianity has begun to
penetrate the Greco- Roman world as something else, something
completely different from Epicurean, Stoic, or Neoplatonic philosophy. But Paul nevertheless finds some common ground in this culture. He emphasizes that the
search for God is natural to all men. This was not new to
the Greeks. But what was new in Paul’s preaching is that God has also revealed himself
to mankind and has in truth reached out to them. So he is no longer a
“philosophic God” that people can approach with their understanding. Neither is he “an
image of gold or
silver or
stone”—there were plenty of those both on the Acropolis and down in
the marketplace! He is a God that “dwelleth
not in temples made with hands.” He is a personal
God who intervenes in the course of history and dies on the
Cross for the sake of mankind.
When Paul had made his speech on the Areopagos, we read in the Acts of the Apostles, some mocked him for what he said about the resurrection from
the dead. But others said: “We will hear thee again of this matter.” There were also some who followed Paul and began to believe
in Christianity. One
of them, it is worth noting,
was a woman named Damaris. Women were amongst the most fervent converts to Christianity.
So
Paul continued his missionary activities.
A few decades after the death of Jesus, Christian congregations were already established in
all the
important Greek and Roman cities—in Athens,
in Rome, in Alexandria, in Ephesos, and in Corinth. In the space of three to four hundred
years, the entire Hellenistic world had become Christian.
The Creed
It was not only as a missionary that Paul came to have a fundamental significance for Christianity. He also had great influence within the Christian congregations. There was a
widespread need for spiritual
guidance.
One important
question in the early
years after Jesus was whether non- Jews could become Christians without
first becoming Jews. Should a Greek,
for instance, observe the dietary laws? Paul believed
it to be unnecessary. Christianity was more than a
Jewish sect. It addressed itself to everybody in a universal message of salvation. The “Old Covenant”
between God and Israel
had been replaced by the “New Covenant” which Jesus had established between God
and mankind.
However, Christianity was not the only religion at that
time. We have seen how Hellenism
was influenced by a fusion
of religions. It was thus vitally necessary for the church to step forward with
a concise summary of the Christian doctrine, both in order to distance itself from other religions and to
prevent schisms within the Christian Church. Therefore the first Creed was established, summing up the central Christian
“dogmas” or tenets.
One
such central tenet was that Jesus was both God and man. He was not the “Son of God” on the strength
of his actions alone. He was God himself. But he was also a “true man”
who had shared the misfortunes of mankind and actually suffered on the Cross.
This may sound like a contradiction. But the message of the church was
precisely that God became man. Jesus
was not a “demigod” (which was half man, half god). Belief in such “demigods” was quite widespread in Greek and Hellenistic religions. The church taught that Jesus was “perfect God, perfect man.”
Postscript
Let
me try to say a few words about how all this hangs together, my dear
Sophie. As Christianity makes its entry into the Greco-Roman world we are witnessing a dramatic meeting of two cultures. We are also seeing one of his- tory’s great cultural revolutions.
We
are about to step out of antiquity. Almost one thousand
years have passed since the
days of the early Greek philosophers.
Ahead of us we have the Christian Middle Ages, which also lasted for about a thousand
years.
The
German poet Goethe once said that “he who cannot draw on three thousand years is living from hand to mouth.” I don’t want you to end up in such
a sad state. I will do what I can to acquaint
you with your historical roots. It is the only way to become a human being. It is the only way to become
more than a naked ape. It is the only way to avoid floating in a
vacuum. “It is the only way to become a human being. It is the only way to
become more than a naked ape ...”
Sophie sat for a while staring
into the garden through the
little holes in the hedge. She was beginning
to understand why it was so important
to know about her historical
roots. It had certainly been important to the Children of
Israel.
She
herself was just an ordinary
person. But if she knew her historical
roots, she would be a little less ordinary.
She
would not be living on this planet for more than a few years. But if
the history of mankind was her own history, in a way she was thousands of years
old.
The Middle
Ages
... going
only part of the way is not the same
as going the wrong way…
A week passed without Sophie
hearing from Alberto Knox. There
were no more postcards from Lebanon either, although she and Joanna still talked about the cards they found in the major’s cabin. Joanna had had the fright of
her life, but as nothing further
seemed to happen, the immediate terror faded and was submerged in homework and badminton.
Sophie read Alberto’s letters over and over,
looking for some clue that would throw light on the Hilde
mystery. Doing so also gave her plenty of opportunity to
digest the classical philosophy. She no longer had difficulty in distinguishing
Democritus and Socrates, or Plato and Aristotle, from each other.
On Friday, May 25, she was in the kitchen fixing dinner before her mother got home. It was their regular Friday agreement. Today she was making
fish soup with fish balls and carrots. Plain and simple.
Outside it was becoming windy. As Sophie
stood stirring the casserole she
turned toward the window. The birch trees were waving like cornstalks.
Suddenly something
smacked
against the window-pane. Sophie
turned around again and discovered a card sticking to the window.
It was
a postcard. She could read it
through the glass: “Hilde Moller Knag, c/o
Sophie Amundsen.”
She thought as much! She opened the window and took the card. It could hardly
have blown all the way from Lebanon!
This card was
also dated June 15. Sophie removed
the casserole from the stove and sat
down at the kitchen table. The card
read:
Dear Hilde, I don’t know whether it will still be your birthday when you read this
card. I hope so, in a way; or at least that not too many days have gone by. A week or two for Sophie does not have to
mean just as long for us. I shall be
coming
home for Midsummer Eve, so we can sit together for hours in the glider, looking out over
the sea, Hilde. We have so
much to talk about. Love from Dad, who sometimes gets very
depressed about the thousand-year-long
strife between Jews, Christians, and
Muslims.
I have to keep reminding myself that all three religions stem from Abraham.
So I suppose they all pray to the same God. Down here, Cain and Abel have not
finished killing each other.
P.S. Please say hello to Sophie. Poor child, she still doesn’t
know how this whole thing hangs together.
But perhaps you do?
Sophie put her head down on the table, exhausted.
One thing was certain—she had no idea how this thing hung together. But Hilde did, presumably.
If Hilde’s father asked her to say hello to
Sophie, it had to mean that Hilde knew more about Sophie than Sophie did about Hilde. It was all so
complicated that Sophie went back to fixing dinner.
A postcard that smacked
against the kitchen window all by
itself! You could call that airmail!
As soon
as she had set the casserole on the stove again, the telephone rang. Suppose it
was Dad! She wished desperately that
he would come home so she
could tell
him everything that had happened in
these last weeks. But it was probably
only Joanna or Mom. Sophie snatched
up the phone.
“Sophie Amundsen,” she said. “It’s me,” said a voice.
Sophie was sure of three things: it was not her father. But it was a man’s voice,
and a voice she knew she had heard before.
“Who is this?” “It’s
Alberto.” “Ohhh!”
Sophie was at a loss for words. It was the voice
from the Acropolis video that she had
recognized.
“Are you
all right?” “Sure.”
“From now
on there will be no more letters.”
“But I didn’t send you a frog!”
“We must meet in person.
It’s beginning to be urgent,
you see.” “Why?”
“Hilde’s
father is closing in on us.” “Closing
in how?”
“On all
sides, Sophie. We have to work together now.” “How...?”
“But you can’t help much before I have told you about the Middle Ages. We
ought to cover the Renaissance and the seventeenth
century as well. Berkeley is a key figure...”
“Wasn’t he the man in the picture at the major’s cabin?”
“That very
same. Maybe the actual struggle will
be waged over his philosophy.” “You make
it sound like a war.”
“I would rather call it a battle of wills. We have to attract
Hilde’s attention and get her over on our side before her father comes home to Lillesand.”
“I don’t
get it at all.”
“Perhaps the philosophers can open your eyes. Meet me at St. Mary’s Church at eight o’clock tomorrow morning. But come alone,
my child.”
“So early
in the morning?” The telephone
clicked. “Hello?”
He had hung up! Sophie rushed back to the stove just before the fish soup boiled
over.
St. Mary’s Church? That was an old stone church
from the Middle Ages. It was only
used for concerts and very special ceremonies.
And in the summer it was sometimes
open to tourists. But surely it
wasn’t open in the middle of the night?
When her mother got home, Sophie had put the
card from Lebanon with everything
else from Alberto and Hilde. After dinner she went over to Joanna’s place.
“We have to make a very special arrangement,” she said as soon as her friend
opened the door.
She said
no more until Joanna had closed her
bedroom door. “It’s rather problematic,”
Sophie went on.
“Spit it
out!”
“I’m going
to have to tell Mom that I’m staying the night here.”
“Great!”
“But it’s
only something I’m saying, you see. I’ve got to go somewhere else.” “That’s bad. Is it a guy?”
“No, it’s
to do with Hilde.”
Joanna
whistled softly, and Sophie looked her severely in the eye.
“I’m coming over this evening,” she said, “but at
seven o’clock I’ve got to sneak out again.
You’ve got to cover for me
until I get back.”
“But where
are you going? What is it you have to do?” “Sorry. My lips are sealed.”
Sleepovers were never a problem. On the contrary, almost. Sometimes Sophie got the impression that her mother enjoyed having the house to herself.
“You’ll
be home for breakfast, I
suppose?” was her mother’s only remark as
Sophie left the house.
“If I’m not, you know where I am.”
What on
earth made her say that? It was the one weak spot.
Sophie’s visit
began like any other sleepover, with talk until late into the
night. The only difference was that when they
finally settled down to sleep at about two o’clock, Sophie set the alarm clock to a quarter to seven.
Five hours
later, Joanna woke briefly as Sophie switched off the buzzer. “Take
care,” she mumbled.
Then Sophie was on her way. St. Mary’s Church
lay on the outskirts of the old part of town. It was several miles walk away, but even though she had only slept for a few hours she felt
wide awake.
It was almost
eight o’clock when she stood at the entrance
to the old stone church. Sophie tried the massive door. It was
unlocked!
Inside the church it was as deserted and silent
as the church was old. A bluish light
filtered in through the stained-glass
windows revealing a myriad of tiny particles of dust hovering
in the air. The dust seemed to gather in thick beams this way and that inside the church. Sophie sat on one of the
benches in the center of the nave, staring toward the altar at an old crucifix painted
with muted colors.
Some minutes
passed. Suddenly the organ began to
play. Sophie dared not look around. It sounded like an ancient hymn, probably from the
Middle Ages.
There was silence again. Then she heard footsteps
approaching from behind her. Should she look around? She
chose instead to fix her eyes on the
Cross.
The footsteps passed her on their way up the aisle and she saw a
figure dressed in a brown monk’s
habit. Sophie could have sworn it was a monk right out of the Middle
Ages.
She was nervous, but not scared out of her
wits. In front of the altar the monk turned in a half-circle and then
climbed up into the pulpit. He leaned over the edge, looked
down at Sophie, and addressed her in
Latin:
“Gloria Patri, et Filio, et Spiritui Sancto. Sicut
erat in principio, et nunc, et semper
et in saecula saeculorum. Amen.”
“Talk sense, silly!” Sophie
burst out.
Her voice
resounded all around the old stone
church.
Although she realized that the monk had to be Alberto Knox, she regretted
her outburst in this venerable place of worship.
But she had been nervous, and when
you’re nervous its comforting
to break all taboos.
“Shhh!” Alberto held up one hand as priests do when they want the
congregation to be seated.
“Middle
Ages began at four,” he said.
“Middle Ages began at four?” asked Sophie,
feeling stupid but no longer nervous.
“About four o’clock, yes. And then it was five
and six and seven. But it was as if time
stood still. And it got to be eight and
nine and ten. But it was still the Middle Ages, you see. Time to get up to a new day, you may think. Yes, I see what you mean.
But it is still Sunday, one long endless row
of Sundays. And it got to be eleven and twelve and thirteen. This was
the period we call the High Gothic,
when the great cathedrals of Europe were built. And then, some time
around fourteen hours, at two in the afternoon,
a cock crowed—and the Middle Ages
began to ebb away.”
“So the Middle Ages lasted for ten hours then,”
said Sophie. Alberto
thrust his head forward out
of the brown monk’s cowl and surveyed
his congregation, which consisted of a fourteen-year-old girl.
“If each hour
was a hundred years, yes. We can
pretend that Jesus was born at midnight.
Paul began his missionary journeys just before half past one in the morning and died in Rome
a quarter of an hour later. Around three in the morning the Christian church was more or less banned, but by A.D. 313 it was an
accepted religion in the Roman Empire.
That was in the reign of the Emperor Constantine. The holy emperor himself
was first baptized on his deathbed many years later. From the year 380
Christianity was the official religion throughout the entire Roman Empire.” “Didn’t the Roman Empire
fall?”
“It was just beginning to crumble.
We are standing before one of the greatest changes in the history of culture.
Rome in the fourth century was being threatened both by barbarians pressing in from the
north and by disintegration from within.
In A.D. 330 Constantine the Great moved
the capital of the Empire from Rome
to Constantinople, the city he had founded at
the approach to the Black
Sea. Many people considered the new city the “second Rome.” In 395 the Roman Empire was divided in two—a Western Empire
with Rome as its center, and an
Eastern Empire with the new city of
Constantinople as its capital. Rome
was plundered by barbarians in 410,
and in 476 the whole of the Western
Empire was destroyed. The Eastern Empire
continued to exist as a state right
up until 1453 when the Turks conquered Constantinople.”
“And its
name got changed to Istanbul?”
“That’s right! Istanbul is its latest name.
Another date we should notice is
529. That was the year when the church closed Plato’s Academy in Athens. In the same year, the Benedictine order, the first
of the great monastic orders, was founded. The year 529 thus became
a symbol of the way the Christian
Church put the lid on Greek philosophy. From
then on, monasteries had the monopoly of education, reflection, and meditation. The clock was ticking toward half past five ...”
Sophie saw what Alberto meant by all these
times. Midnight was 0, one o’clock was 100 years after Christ, six o’clock was
600 years after Christ, and 14 hours was
1,400 years
after Christ...
Alberto continued: “The Middle Ages actually means the period between two other epochs.
The expression arose during the
Renaissance. The Dark Ages, as they
were also called, were seen then as one interminable
thousand-year-long night which had settled over Europe between antiquity and the Renaissance. The word ‘medieval’
is used negatively nowadays about anything that
is over-authoritative and inflexible. But many
historians now consider the Middle
Ages to have been a thousand-year period of germination and growth. The school
system, for instance, was
developed in the Middle Ages. The first convent schools were opened quite early
on in the period, and cathedral schools followed in the twelfth century. Around
the year 1200 the first
universities were
founded, and the subjects to be studied were
grouped into various
‘faculties,’ just
as they are today.”
“A thousand
years is a really long time.”
“Yes, but Christianity took time to reach
the masses. Moreover, in the course
of the Middle Ages the various nation-states established
themselves, with cities and cit-
izens, folk music and folktales. What would fairy tales and folk songs have
been without the Middle Ages? What would Europe have been, even? A
Roman province, perhaps. Yet the resonance in such names as England,
France, or Germany is the very same boundless deep we call the Middle Ages. There are many shining fish
swimming
around in those depths, although we do not always catch sight of them. Snorri lived in the Middle Ages. So did
Saint Olaf and Charlemagne, to say
nothing of Romeo and Juliet, Joan of Arc, Ivanhoe, the Pied Piper of Hamelin, and many mighty princes and majestic kings, chivalrous knights and fair damsels, anonymous stained-glass window makers and ingenious organ builders. And I haven’t even mentioned friars, crusaders, or witches.”
“You haven’t
mentioned the clergy, either.”
“Correct. Christianity didn’t come to Norway,
by the way, until the eleventh
century. It would be an exaggeration
to say that the Nordic countries converted to Christianity at one fell swoop.
Ancient heathen beliefs persisted under the surface of Christianity, and many
of these pre-Christian elements became integrated with Christianity. In
Scandinavian Christmas celebrations,
for example, Christian and Old Norse customs are wedded even to this day. And here
the old saying applies, that married
folk grow to resemble each other.
Yuletide cookies, Yuletide piglets, and Yuletide ale begin to resemble the Three Wise Men from the Orient and the manger in Bethlehem.
But without doubt, Christianity gradually became
the predominant philosophy of life.
Therefore we usually speak of the Middle Ages
as being a unifying force of Christian culture.”
“So it
wasn’t all gloom, then?”
“The first centuries after the year 400 really were a cultural decline. The Roman period had been a high culture, with
big cities that had sewers, public baths, and libraries, not to mention proud architecture. In the early centuries of the Middle Ages
this entire culture crumbled. So did
its trade and economy. In the Middle Ages people returned to payment in kind and bartering. The economy was now characterized by feudalism, which meant
that a few powerful nobles owned the land, which the serfs had to toil on in
order to live. The population also
declined steeply in the first centuries. Rome had over a million inhabitants in antiquity. But by 600, the
population of
the old Roman capital had fallen to
40,000, a mere fraction of what it had been. Thus
a relatively small population was
left to wander among what remained of
the majestic edifices
of
the city’s former glory. When they needed building materials,
there were plenty of ruins to supply
them. This is naturally a source of
great sorrow to present-day archeologists, who would rather have seen medieval
man leave the ancient monuments untouched.”
“It’s easy
to know better after the fact.”
“From a political
point of view, the Roman
period was already over
by the end of the fourth century. However, the Bishop of Rome became the
supreme head of the Roman Catholic Church. He was given the title ‘Pope’—in Latin ‘papa,’ which means
what it says— and gradually became looked upon
as Christ’s deputy on earth. Rome was
thus the Christian capital throughout most
of the medieval period. But as the
kings and
bishops of the new nation-states became
more and more powerful, some of them
were bold enough to stand up to the might of the church.”
“You said the
church closed Plato’s Academy
in Athens. Does that mean that all
the Greek philosophers were forgotten?”
“Not entirely. Some of the writings of
Aristotle and Plato were known. But
the old Roman Empire was gradually divided into three different cultures. In Western
Europe we had a Latinized Christian culture
with Rome as its capital. In Eastern Europe we had a Greek Christian
culture with Constantinople as its
capital. This city began to be called by its Greek name, Byzantium. We therefore speak of the Byzantine Middle Ages as opposed to the Roman Catholic Middle Ages. However, North Africa and the
Middle East had also been part of
the Roman Empire. This area developed during the
Middle Ages into an Arabic-speaking Muslim culture. After
the death of Muhammad in 632, both the Middle East and North Africa were won over to Islam. Shortly thereafter, Spain
also became part of the world of Islamic
culture.
Islam adopted
Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, and Bagdad
as holy cities. From the
point of view of cultural
history, it is interesting to note that the Arabs also took over
the ancient Hellenistic city of Alexandria. Thus much
of the old Greek science was inherited by the Arabs. All through the Middle Ages, the Arabs were predominant hi sciences such as mathematics,
chemistry, astronomy, and medicine. Nowadays we still use Arabic
figures. In a number of areas Arabic culture was superior to Christian
culture.”
“I wanted
to know what happened to Greek
philosophy.”
“Can you imagine a broad river that divides for
a while into three different streams
before it once again becomes one
great wide river?”
“Yes.”
“Then you can also see how the Greco-Roman
culture was divided, but survived through the three cultures: the Roman Catholic in the west, the Byzantine in the east, and the Arabic in the
south. Although it’s greatly oversimplified, we could say that Neoplatonism
was handed down in the west, Plato
in the east, and Aristotle to the
Arabs in the south. But there was also something of
them all in all three streams. The point is that at the end of the Middle
Ages, all three streams came
together in
Northern
Italy. The Arabic influence came
from the Arabs in Spain, the Greek
influence from Greece and the
Byzantine Empire. And now we see the
beginning of the Renaissance, the ‘rebirth’ of antique
culture. In one sense, antique culture
had survived the Dark Ages.”
“I see.”
“But let us not anticipate the course of events. We mast
first talk a little about medieval philosophy. I shall not speak from this pulpit any more. I’m coming
down.”
Sophie’s eyes were heavy from too little sleep. When she saw the strange monk descending from the pulpit of St. Mary’s Church, she felt
as if she were dreaming.
Alberto walked toward the altar rail. He looked up
at the altar with its ancient crucifix, then he walked slowly toward Sophie. He sat down beside her on the
bench of the pew.
It was a strange feeling, being so close to him.
Under his cowl Sophie saw a pair of deep brown eyes. They belonged
to a middle-aged man with dark hair and a little pointed
beard. Who are you, she wondered. Why
have you turned my life upside down?
“We shall become better acquainted by and by,” he said,
as if he had read her thoughts.
As they sat there together, with the light that filtered into
the church through the stained-glass windows becoming
sharper and sharper, Alberto Knox
began to talk about medieval
philosophy.
“The medieval
philosophers took it almost for granted that Christianity was true,” he began. “The question was
whether we must simply believe the Christian revelation or whether we can approach the Christian truths with the help of reason. What was the relationship between
the Greek philosophers and what the Bible said? Was there a contradiction between the Bible and reason, or were belief and knowledge compatible? Almost all medieval philosophy centered
on this one ques- tion.”
Sophie
nodded impatiently. She had
been through this in her religion
class. “We shall see how the two most
prominent medieval
philosophers dealt with
this question,
and we might as well begin
with St. Augustine, who lived from 354
to
430. In
this one person’s life we can observe the
actual transition from late antiquity
to the Early Middle Ages. Augustine was born in the little town of Tagaste
in North Africa. At the age of sixteen he went to Carthage to study. Later he traveled to Rome and Milan, and lived the last
years of his life in the town of Hippo, a few miles west
of Carthage.
However, he was not a Christian all
his life. Augustine examined several
different religions and philosophies before he became a Christian.”
“Could
you give some examples?”
“For a time
he was a Manichaean. The Manichaeans
were a religious sect that was extremely
characteristic of late antiquity.
Their doctrine was half religion and
half philosophy,
asserting that the world consisted of a dualism of good and evil, light and darkness, spirit and matter. With his spirit, mankind could rise above the world
of matter and thus prepare for the salvation of his soul. But this sharp division between good and evil
gave the young Augustine no peace of mind. He was completely preoccupied with
what we like to call the ‘problem of evil.’
By this we mean the question of where
evil comes from. For a time he was influenced by Stoic philosophy,
and according to the Stoics,
there was no sharp division between
good and evil. However, his principal leanings were toward the other
significant philosophy of late antiquity, Neoplatonism.
Here he came across the idea that all existence
is divine in nature.”
“So he
became a Neoplatonic bishop?”
“Yes, you could say that. He became a Christian first,
but the Christianity of St. Augustine is
largely influenced by Platonic ideas. And therefore, Sophie, therefore you have
to understand that there is no dramatic break with Greek philosophy the minute
we enter the Christian Middle Ages. Much of Greek philosophy was carried over to the new age through
Fathers of the Church like St. Augustine.”
“Do you
mean
that St. Augustine was half Christian
and half Neoplatonist?” “He himself believed he was a hundred-percent
Christian although he saw no
real contradiction between Christianity and the philosophy
of Plato. For him, the similarity
between Plato and the Christian doctrine was so apparent that he thought Plato must
have had knowledge of the Old Testament.
This, of course, is highly improbable.
Let us rather say that it was St. Augustine who ‘christianized’
Plato.”
“So he didn’t turn his back on everything that
had to do with philosophy when he started
believing in Christianity?”
“No, but he pointed out that there are limits to how far reason can get you in
religious questions. Christianity is
a divine mystery that we can only perceive through faith.
But if we believe in Christianity, God will ‘illuminate’ the soul
so that we experience a sort of
supernatural knowledge of God. St. Augustine had felt within himself that there was a limit to how far philosophy could go. Not before he became
a Christian did he find peace in his own
soul. ‘Our heart is not quiet until
it rests in Thee,’ he writes.”
“I don’t
quite understand how Plato’s ideas
could go together with
Christianity,” Sophie objected. “What about the eternal ideas?”
“Well, St. Augustine
certainly maintains that God created
the world out of the void, and that was a Biblical idea. The Greeks preferred the idea that the world had always existed.
But St. Augustine believed that
before God created the world, the
‘ideas’
were in the Divine mind. So he located the Platonic ideas in God and in that way preserved the
Platonic view of eternal ideas.”
“That was
smart.”
“But it indicates how not only St. Augustine but many of the other Church Fathers bent over backward to bring Greek and Jewish thought
together. In a sense they were of two
cultures. Augustine also inclined to
Neoplatonism in his view of evil. He
believed, like Plotinus, that evil is the ‘absence
of God.’ Evil has no in- dependent existence, it is something that is not, for
God’s creation is in fact only good. Evil comes
from mankind’s disobedience, Augustine believed. Or, in his own
words, ‘The good will is God’s work; the evil will is the falling away from God’s work.’ “
“Did he
also believe that man has a divine
soul?”
“Yes and no. St. Augustine maintained that there is an insurmountable
barrier between God and the world. In this he stands firmly on Biblical
ground, rejecting the doctrine of Plotinus that everything is one. But he
nevertheless emphasizes that man is a spiritual being. He has a material body—which belongs to the physical world
which
‘moth and rust doth corrupt’—but he also has a soul which can know God.” “What happens to the
soul when we die?”
“According to St. Augustine, the entire human
race was lost after the Fall of Man. But God nevertheless decided that certain people should be saved from per- dition.”
“In that case, God could just as well have decided that everybody should be
saved.”
“As far as that goes, St. Augustine denied
that man has any right to criticize God, referring to Paul’s Epistle to the Romans:
‘O Man, who art thou that replies! against
God? Shall the thing formed say to
him that formed it; why hast thou made me thus? or Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make
one vessel unto honor and another unto dishonor?’ “
“So God sits up in his Heaven playing with
people? And as soon as he is
dissatisfied with one of his creations,
he just throws it away.”
“St. Augustine’s point was that no man deserves
God’s redemption. And yet God has chosen some
to be saved from damnation, so for him there was nothing
secret about who will be saved and who damned.
It is preordained. We are
entirely at his mercy.”
“So in a way, he returned to the old belief in
fate.”
“Perhaps. But
St. Augustine did not renounce man’s
responsibility for his own life. He
taught that we must live in awareness
of being among the chosen. He did not
deny that we have free will. But God has ‘foreseen’
how we will live.”
“Isn’t that rather unfair?” asked Sophie. “Socrates said that we all had the same chances because we all had the same common
sense. But St. Augustine divides people into two groups. One group gets saved
and the other gets damned.”
“You are right in that St. Augustine’s theology
is considerably removed from the humanism
of Athens. But St. Augustine wasn’t
dividing humanity into two groups. He
was merely expounding the Biblical doctrine of salvation and damnation. He explained this in a learned work called the City of God.”
“Tell me about that.”
“The expression ‘City of God,’ or ‘Kingdom of God,’ comes from the Bible and
the teachings of Jesus. St. Augustine believed that all human history is a struggle between the
‘Kingdom of God’ and the ‘Kingdom of the World.’ The two ‘kingdoms’
are not political kingdoms distinct from each other. They
struggle for mastery inside every single person. Nevertheless,
the Kingdom of God is more or less clearly present in the Church,
and the Kingdom of the World is present in the State—for example, in the Roman Empire, which was
in decline at the time of St. Augustine. This
conception became increasingly clear as Church and State fought for
supremacy throughout the Middle Ages. There is no salvation outside
the Church,’ it was now said. St. Augustine’s
‘City of God’ eventually became
identical with the established
Church. Not until the Reformation in
the sixteenth century was there
any protest against the idea that
people could only obtain salvation
through the Church.”
“It was
about time!”
“We can also observe that
St. Augustine was the first
philosopher we have come across to
draw history into his philosophy. The struggle between good and evil was by no
means new. What was new was that for
Augustine the struggle was played out in history. There is not much of Plato in this aspect
of St. Augustine’s work. He was more
influenced by the linear view of history as we meet it in the Old Testament: the idea that God needs all of
history in order to realize his Kingdom of
God. History is necessary for the
enlightenment of man and the destruction of evil. Or, as St.
Augustine put it, ‘Divine foresight directs the
history of mankind from Adam to
the end of time as if it were the
story of one man who gradually develops from childhood to old age.’ “
Sophie
looked at her watch. “It’s ten o’clock,”
she said. “I’ll have to go soon.”
“But first I must tell you about the other
great medieval philosopher. Shall we
sit outside?”
Alberto stood
up. He placed the palms of his hands together
and began to stride down the aisle.
He looked as if he was praying or meditating
deeply on some spiritual truth.
Sophie followed him; she felt she had
no choice.
The sun had not yet broken through the morning
clouds. Alberto seated himself on a
bench outside the church. Sophie wondered what people would think if anyone came by. Sitting on a church bench at ten in the morning was odd
in itself, and sitting with a medieval
monk wouldn’t make things look any better.
“It is eight o’clock,” he began. “About four
hundred years have elapsed since St. Augustine,
and now school starts. From now until
ten o’clock, convent schools will
have the monopoly on education.
Between ten and eleven o’clock the first
cathedral schools
will be founded, followed at noon by
the first universities. The great
Gothic cathedrals
will be built at the same
time.
This church, too, dates from the
1200s—or
what we call the High Gothic period. In
this town they couldn’t afford a large cathedral.”
“They didn’t
need one,” Sophie said. “I hate empty
churches.”
“Ah, but the great cathedrals were not built only for large congregations. They were built to
the glory of God and were in themselves a kind of religious celebration.
However, something else happened
during this period which has special
significance for philosophers like us.”
Alberto continued: “The influence of the Arabs of
Spain began to make itself felt.
Throughout the Middle Ages, the Arabs had
kept the Aristotelian tradition alive, and from the
end of the twelfth century, Arab scholars began to arrive in Northern Italy at the invitation of the
nobles. Many of Aristotle’s writings thus became
known
and were
translated from Greek and Arabic into
Latin. This created a new interest
in the natural sciences
and infused new life into
the question of the Christian revelation’s relationship to Greek
philosophy. Aristotle could obviously no longer be ignored in matters of science, but when should one
attend to Aristotle the philosopher, and when should one stick to the Bible? Do
you see?”
Sophie
nodded, and the monk went on:
“The greatest and most significant philosopher of this period was St. Thomas
Aquinas, who lived from 1225 to 1274. He came
from the little town of Aquino, be-
tween Rome and Naples, but he
also worked as a teacher at the University of Paris. I call him a
philosopher but he was just as much a
theologian. There was no great difference between philosophy and theology at
that time. Briefly, we can say that
Aquinas christianized Aristotle in the same
way that St. Augustine christianized Plato in early medieval times.”
“Wasn’t it rather an odd
thing to do, christianizing philosophers who had lived several hundred years
before Christ?”
“You could say so. But by ‘christianizing’ these
two great Greek philosophers, we only mean that they were
interpreted and explained in such a
way that they were
no longer
considered a threat to Christian dogma.
Aquinas was among those who tried to make Aristotle’s philosophy compatible with Christianity. We say that he created the great synthesis between faith and knowledge. He did this by entering the
philosophy of Aristotle and taking
him at his word.”
“I’m sorry, but I had hardly any sleep last night. I’m afraid you’ll have to explain it more clearly.”
“Aquinas believed that there need be no conflict
between what philosophy or reason teaches
us and what the Christian Revelation or faith teaches us. Christendom and philosophy often say the same thing. So we can frequently reason ourselves to the same truths that we can read in the
Bible.”
“How come? Can reason tell us that God created the
world in six days or that
Jesus was
the Son of God?”
“No, those so-called verities of faith are only accessible through belief and the Christian Revelation.
But Aquinas believed in the existence
of a number of ‘natural theological
truths.’ By that he meant truths that could be reached both through Christian faith and
through our innate or natural reason. For example,
the truth that there is a God. Aquinas believed that there are two paths to God. One path goes through faith and the
Christian Revelation, and the other
goes through reason and the senses.
Of these two, the path of faith and revelation is certainly the surest, because
it is easy to lose one’s way by trusting to reason alone. But Aquinas’s point
was that there need not be any conflict between a philosopher
like Aristotle and the Christian
doctrine.”
“So we
can take our choice between believing
Aristotle and believing the
Bible?”
“Not at all. Aristotle goes only part of the
way because he didn’t know of the
Christian revelation. But going only part of the way is not the same as
going the wrong way. For example, it
is not wrong to say that Athens is in
Europe. But neither is it particularly precise. If a book only tells you that
Athens is a city in Europe, it would
be wise to look it up in a geography
book as well. There you would find the whole truth that Athens is the
capital of Greece, a small
country in southeastern Europe. If you are lucky you might be told a little about the Acropolis as well. Not to mention
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.”
“But the
first bit of information about Athens
was true.”
“Exactly! Aquinas wanted to prove that there is only one truth. So when
Aristotle shows us something our reason tells us is true,
it is not in conflict with Christian teaching. We can
arrive successfully at one aspect of
the truth with the aid of reason and the evidence of our senses.
For example, the kind of truths
Aristotle refers to when he describes the plant and the animal kingdom. Another aspect of the
truth is
revealed to us by God through the Bible. But the two aspects of the truth over-
lap at significant points. There are
many questions about which the Bible and reason tell us exactly the same thing.”
“Like there
being a God?”
“Exactly. Aristotle’s philosophy also presumed
the existence of a God—or a formal cause—which sets all natural processes
going. But he gives no further descrip- tion of God. For this we must rely solely on the Bible and the teachings
of Jesus.”
“Is it
so absolutely certain that
there is a God?”
“It can be disputed, obviously. But even in our day most
people will agree that human reason
is certainly not capable of disproving
the existence of God. Aquinas went further. He believed that he could prove God’s
existence on the basis of Aristotle’s philosophy.”
“Not bad!”
“With our reason we can
recognize that everything around us must
have a
‘formal cause,’ he believed. God has revealed himself to mankind
both through the Bible and through reason. There is thus both a ‘theology of
faith’ and a ‘natural theology.’ The same
is true of the moral aspect.
The Bible teaches us how God wants
us to live. But God has also given us a conscience which enables us to
distinguish between right and wrong on a ‘natural’ basis. There
are thus also ‘two paths’ to a moral life. We know that it is wrong to harm people
even if we haven’t read in the Bible that we must
‘do unto others as you would have them do
unto you.’ Here, too, the surest guide is to follow the Bible’s
commandment.”
“I think I understand,” said Sophie now. “It’s almost like how we know there’s a
thunderstorm, by seeing the lightning
and by hearing the thunder.”
“That’s right! We
can hear the thunder even if we are
blind, and we can see the lightning
even if we are deaf. It’s best if we can both see and
hear, of course. But there is
no contradiction between what we see and
what we hear. On the contrary— the two impressions
reinforce each other.”
“I see.”
“Let me
add another picture. If you read a novel— John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men, for
example ...”
“I’ve
read that, actually.”
“Don’t you feel you know something about the author just by reading
his book?”
“I realize
there is a person who wrote it.” “Is that all you know
about him?”
“He seems to care about outsiders.”
“When you read this
book—which is Steinbeck’s
creation—you get to know something
about Steinbeck’s nature as well. But you cannot expect to get any personal
information about the author. Could you tell from reading Of Mice and Men
how old the author was when he wrote it,
where he lived, or how many children he had?”
“Of course
not.”
“But you can find this information
in a biography of John Steinbeck.
Only in a biography—or an autobiography—can you get better acquainted with Steinbeck, the
person.”
“That’s
true.”
“That’s more
or less how it is with God’s Creation and the Bible. We can recognize that
there is a God just by walking around
in the natural world. We can
easily see that He loves flowers and animals, otherwise He would not have made them. But information
about God, the person, is only found
in the Bible—or in God’s
‘autobiography,’ if you like.”
“You’re
good at finding examples.”
“Mmmm...”
For the
first time Alberto just sat there thinking— without answering.
“Does all
this have anything to do with Hilde?”
Sophie could not help asking. “We
don’t know whether there is a ‘Hilde’
at all.”
“But we know someone is planting evidence of
her all over the place. Postcards, a silk scarf, a green wallet, a stocking
...”
Alberto nodded. “And it seems as if it is Hilde’s
father who is deciding how many clues
he will plant,” he said. “For now,
all we know is that someone is
sending us a lot of postcards. I wish he would write something about himself too. But we shall return to that later.”
“It’s a
quarter to eleven. I’ll have to get
home before the end of the Middle
Ages.”
“I shall just conclude with a few words about
how Aquinas adopted Aristotle’s philosophy in all the areas where it did
not collide with the Church’s theology. These included his logic, his theory of knowledge, and
not least his natural philosophy. Do
you recall, for example, how Aristotle described the
progressive scale of life from plants and animals
to humans?”
Sophie
nodded.
“Aristotle believed that
this scale indicated a God that constituted
a sort of maximum
of existence. This scheme of things was not difficult to align with Christian theology. According
to Aquinas, there was a progressive degree of existence from plants and animals to man, from man to angels, and
from angels to God. Man, like animals, has a body and sensory organs, but man also has intelligence
which enables him to reason things
out.
Angels have no such body with sensory organs, which is why they have spontaneous and immediate
intelligence. They have no need to ‘ponder,’ like humans; they have no need to reason out conclusions. They know
everything that man can know without having to learn it step by step like us. And since angels have no body, they can never die. They are not everlasting like God, because they were once
created by God. But they have no body that they must one day depart from, and so they will never die.”
“That sounds lovely!”
“But up above the angels, God rules, Sophie. He can see and know everything in
one single coherent vision.”
“So he
can see us now.”
“Yes, perhaps he can. But not ‘now.’ For God, time does not exist as it does for us. Our ‘now’ is not God’s ‘now.’ Because many weeks pass for us, they do not necessarily pass for God.”
“That’s creepy!”
Sophie exclaimed. She put her hand over her mouth. Alberto looked down at her, and
Sophie continued: “I got another card
from Hilde’s father yesterday. He
wrote something like—even if it takes a week or two for Sophie, that doesn’t have to
mean it will be that long for us.
That’s almost the same as what you
said about
God!”
Sophie could
see a sudden frown flash across Alberto’s face beneath the brown
cowl.
“He ought to be ashamed of himself!”
Sophie didn’t quite understand what Alberto meant. He went on:
“Unfortunately, Aquinas also adopted Aristotle’s
view of women. You may perhaps
recall that Aristotle thought
a woman was more or less an incomplete man. He also
thought that children only inherit the father’s characteristics,
since a woman was passive and receptive
while the man was active and
creative. According to Aquinas,
these views harmonized with the message of
the Bible—which, for example,
tells us that woman was made out of Adam’s rib.”
“Nonsense!”
“It’s
interesting to note that the eggs
of mammals were not discovered until
1827. It
was therefore perhaps not so surprising
that people thought it was the man
who was the creative and lifegiving force
in reproduction. We can moreover note that, according to
Aquinas, it is only as nature-being that woman is inferior to man. Woman’s
soul is equal to man’s soul. In Heaven there is complete equality of the
sexes because
all physical gender differences cease to exist.”
“That’s
cold comfort. Weren’t there any
women philosophers in the Middle
Ages?”
“The life of the church in the Middle Ages was heavily dominated by men. But that did not mean that there were no women
thinkers. One of them was Hildegard
of Bingen...”
Sophie’s
eyes widened:
“Does she
have anything to do with Hilde?”
“What a question!
Hildegard lived as a nun in the Rhine Valley from 1098 to
1179. In spite of being a woman, she worked as preacher, author,
physician, botanist, and naturalist. She is an example of the fact that women were often more practical,
more scientific even, in the Middle Ages.”
“But what about Hilde?”
“It was an ancient Christian and Jewish belief
that God was not only a man. He also
had a female side, or ‘mother nature.’ Women, too, are created in God’s likeness. In
Greek, this female side of God is called Sophia. ‘Sophia’ or ‘Sophie’ means wisdom.”
Sophie shook her head resignedly. Why had nobody
ever told her that? And why had she
never asked?
Alberto continued: “Sophia, or God’s mother nature, had a certain significance
both for Jews and in the Greek Orthodox Church
throughout the Middle Ages. In the west she was forgotten. But along comes Hildegard.
Sophia appeared to her in a vision, dressed in a golden tunic adorned with
costly jewels ...”
Sophie
stood up. Sophia had revealed herself to Hildegard in a vision ...
“Maybe I will appear to Hilde.”
She sat
down again. For the third time Alberto laid his hand on her shoulder. “That is
something we must look into. But now it is past eleven o’clock. You
must go
home, and we are approaching a new era. I shall summon you to a meeting
on the Renaissance. Hermes will come
get you in the garden.”
With
that the strange monk rose and began to walk toward the
church. Sophie stayed where she was, thinking about Hildegard and Sophia, Hilde and Sophie.
Sud- denly she jumped up and ran after the monk-robed
philosopher, calling:
“Was
there also an Alberto in the Middle Ages?”
Alberto slowed his pace somewhat, turned his head
slightly and said, “Aquinas had a famous philosophy teacher called Albert the
Great...”
With that he bowed his
head and disappeared through the door of St. Mary’s
Church.
Sophie was not satisfied with his answer. She
followed him into the church. But now
it was completely empty. Did he go
through the floor?
Just as she was leaving the church she noticed
a picture of the Madonna. She went
up to it and studied it closely. Suddenly she discovered a little drop of water
under one of the Madonna’s eyes. Was
it a tear?
Sophie
rushed out of the church and hurried back to Joanna’s.
The Renaissance
…O divine lineage in mortal guise…
It was just twelve when Sophie reached Joanna’s front gate, out of breath with
running. Joanna was standing in the front yard
outside her family’s yellow house.
“You’ve
been gone for five hours!”
Joanna said sharply. Sophie shook her head.
“No, I’ve
been gone for more than a thousand years.”
“Where on earth have you been? You’re
crazy. Your mom
called half an hour
ago.”
“What did you tell her?”
“I said you were at the drugstore. She said would you call her when you got
back. But
you should have seen my mom and dad when they came in with hot chocolate and rolls at ten
this morning ... and your bed was empty.”
“What did you say to them?”
“It was really embarrassing. I told them you
went home because we got mad at each
other.”
“So we’d better hurry up and be friends again. And we have to make sure your parents don’t talk to my mom for
a few days. Do you think we can do
that?”
Joanna shrugged. Just then her father came
around the corner with a wheelbarrow. He had a pair of coveralls on and was busy clearing up last year’s
leaves and twigs.
“Aha—so you’re friends again, I see. Well, there’s
not so much as a single leaf left on the basement steps now.”
“Fine,” said Sophie. “So perhaps we can have our hot chocolate there instead of in
bed.”
Joanna’s dad gave a forced laugh, but Joanna gasped. Verbal exchanges had always
been more robust in Sophie’s family
than at the more well-to-do home of Mr. Ingebrigtsen, the financial
adviser, and his wife.
“I’m sorry, Joanna, but I felt I ought to take
part in this cover-up operation as well.”
“Are you
going to tell me about it?”
“Sure, if you walk home with me. Because it’s not for the ears of financial advisers or overgrown Barbie
dolls.”
“That’s a rotten thing to say! I suppose you think
a rocky marriage that drives one of
the partners away to sea is better?”
“Probably not. But I hardly slept last night. And another thing, I’ve begun to
wonder whether Hilde can see everything we do.”
They began
to walk toward Clover Close.
“You mean she might have second sight?” “Maybe. Maybe not.”
Joanna
was clearly not enthusiastic
about all this secrecy.
“But that doesn’t explain why her father sent a lot of crazy postcards to an empty cabin in the woods.”
“I admit that is a weak spot.”
“Do you
want to tell me where you have been?”
So she did. Sophie told her everything, about
the mysterious philosophy course as well. She made Joanna swear to keep
everything secret.
They walked
for a long time without speaking. As they approached Clover
Close, Joanna
said, “I don’t like it.”
She stopped
at Sophie’s gate and turned to go home
again.
“Nobody asked you to like it. But philosophy is
not a harmless party game. It’s about who we are and where we come from.
Do you think we learn enough about that at school?”
“Nobody can answer questions like that anyway.”
“Yes, but we don’t even learn to ask them!”
Lunch was on the table when Sophie walked into the kitchen. Nothing was said about
her not having called from Joanna’s.
After lunch Sophie announced that she was going to take a nap. She admitted she
had hardly slept at Joanna’s house, which was not at all unusual at a
sleepover.
Before getting into bed she stood in front of the big brass mirror
which now hung on her wall. At first she only saw her own white and exhausted
face. But then— behind her own face,
the faintest suggestion of another face seemed to appear. Sophie took one or two deep breaths. It was no good starting to imagine things.
She studied the sharp contours of her own pale face framed by that impossible
hair which defied any style
but nature’s own. But beyond that
face was the apparition of another girl. Suddenly the other girl began to wink
frantically with both eyes, as if to signal
that she was really in there on the other side. The apparition
lasted only a few seconds. Then she was gone.
Sophie sat down on the edge of the bed. She had absolutely no doubt that it was
Hilde she had seen in the mirror. She had caught a glimpse of
her picture on a school I.D. in the major’s
cabin. It must have been the same girl she had seen in the mirror.
Wasn’t it odd, how she always experienced mysterious
things like this when she was dead
tired. It meant that afterward she always had to ask herself whether it really
had happened.
Sophie laid her clothes on the chair and crawled into bed. She fell asleep at once
and had a strangely vivid dream.
She dreamed
she was standing in a large garden
that sloped down to a red boathouse. On the dock behind it sat a young
fair-haired girl gazing out over the water. Sophie walked down and sat beside her. But the girl seemed not to notice her. Sophie introduced herself. “I’m Sophie,” she said. But the other girl could apparently neither see nor hear
her. Suddenly Sophie heard a voice calling, “Hilde!” At once the girl jumped up from where she was sitting and ran as fast as she could up to the
house. She couldn’t have been deaf or blind
after all. A middle-aged man came
striding from
the house toward her. He was wearing a khaki uniform and a blue beret. The girl threw her arms around his neck and he swung her around a few times. Sophie noticed a little gold crucifix
on a chain lying on the dock where the girl had been sitting. She picked it up
and held it in her hand. Then she woke up.
Sophie
looked at the clock. She had been asleep
for two hours. She sat up in
bed, thinking
about the strange dream. It was so real that she felt as if she had actually lived the
experience. She was equally sure that the house and the dock really existed somewhere.
Surely it resembled the picture she
had seen hanging in the major’s
cabin?
Anyway, there was no doubt at all that
the girl in her dream was
Hilde Moller Knag and that the man
was her father, home from Lebanon. In
her dream he had looked a lot like Alberto Knox ...
As Sophie stood up and began to tidy her bed,
she found a gold crucifix on a chain under her pillow. On the back of the crucifix there were three letters engraved: HMK.
This was not the first time Sophie had dreamed she found a
treasure. But this was definitely the first time
she had brought it back from the dream.
“Damn!” she said aloud.
She was so mad
that she opened the closet door and hurled the
delicate crucifix up onto the top shelf with the silk scarf, the white
stocking, and the postcards from Lebanon.
The next morning Sophie woke up to a big breakfast of
hot rolls, orange juice, eggs, and vegetable salad. It was not often that her mother was up before Sophie on a Sunday morning. When she was,
she liked to fix a solid meal for
Sophie.
While they were eating, Mom said, “There’s
a strange dog in the garden. It’s been sniffing round the old hedge all morning.
I can’t imagine what it’s doing here,
can you?”
“Yes!” Sophie burst out, and at once regretted
it. “Has it been here before?”
Sophie had already left the table and gone into
the living room to look out of the window facing the large garden. It was just as she thought.
Hermes
was lying in front of the secret entrance to her den.
What should she say? She had no time to
think of anything before her mother came
and stood beside her.
“Did you say it had been here before?” she
asked.
“I expect it buried a bone there and now it’s
come
to fetch its treasure.
Dogs have memories
too ...”
“Maybe
you’re right, Sophie. You’re the animal
psychologist in the family.” Sophie
thought feverishly.
“I’ll take
it home,” she said.
“You know
where it lives, then?” Sophie shrugged
her shoulders.
“It’s probably
got an address on its collar.”
A couple of minutes later Sophie was on her way down the
garden. When Hermes caught sight of her he came lolloping toward her, wagging his tail
and jumping up to her.
“Good boy,
Hermes!” said Sophie.
She knew her mother
was watching from the window. She
prayed he would not go through the hedge. But the dog dashed toward the gravel
path in front of the house, streaked across the front yard, and jumped up to
the gate.
When they had shut the gate behind them, Hermes continued to run a few yards in front
of Sophie. It was a long way. Sophie
and Hermes were not the only ones out for a Sunday walk. Whole families were
setting off for the day. Sophie felt a pang of envy.
From time
to time Hermes would run off and
sniff at another dog or at
something
interesting by a garden hedge, but as soon as Sophie called “Here, boy!” he
would come back
to her at once.
They crossed an old pasture, a large playing field, and a playground, and emerged into an area with more traffic. They continued toward the
town center along a broad street with cobbled stones and streetcars. Hermes led the way across
the town
square and
up Church Street. They came out into
the Old Town, with its massive staid town houses from the turn of the century. It was almost half past one.
Now they were on the other side of town. Sophie had not been there very often.
Once when she was little, she remembered,
she had been taken to visit an old
aunt in one of these streets.
Eventually they reached
a little square between several old
houses. It was called New Square,
although it all looked very old. But then the whole town was old; it had been
founded way back in the Middle Ages.
Hermes walked
toward No. 14, where he stood still and waited for Sophie to open
the door. Her heart began to beat faster.
Inside the front door there were a number of
green mailboxes attached to a panel.
Sophie noticed a postcard hanging from one
of the mailboxes in the top row. It
had a stamped message from the mailman
across it to the effect that
the addressee was unknown.
The addressee
was Hilde Moller Knag, 14 New Square. It was
postmarked June
15. That
was not for two weeks, but the mailman
had obviously not noticed that.
Sophie
took the card down and read it:
Dear Hilde, Now Sophie is coming
to the philosopher’s house. She will soon be fifteen, but you
were fifteen yesterday. Or is it
today, Hilde? If it is today, it must be late, then. But our watches do not always agree.
One generation ages while another
generation is brought forth. In the meantime
history takes its course. Have you ever thought that the history of Europe is like a human life? Antiquity is
like the childhood of Europe. Then come
the interminable Middle Ages—Europe’s
schoolday. But at
last comes the Renaissance; the long school-day is over. Europe comes of age in a burst of exuberance and a
thirst for life. We could say that the Renaissance is
Europe’s fifteenth birthday! It is mid-June, my
child, and it is wonderful to be
alive!
P.S. Sorry to hear you lost your gold crucifix.
You must learn to take better care of
your things. Love, Dad—who is just around the corner.
Hermes was already
on his way up the stairs. Sophie took the postcard
with her and followed. She had to run to keep up with him; he was wagging his tail delight- edly. They passed the second,
third, and fourth stories. From then
on there was only an attic staircase. Were
they going up to the roof? Hermes
clambered on up the stairs and
stopped outside a narrow door, which he scratched at with his paw.
Sophie heard footsteps approaching from inside.
The door opened, and there stood Alberto Knox. He had changed his clothes and
was now wearing another cos- tume. It
consisted of white hose, red knee-breeches,
and a yellow jacket with padded shoulders. He
reminded
Sophie of a joker in a deck of
cards. If she was not much mistaken,
this was a typical Renaissance costume.
“What a clown!” Sophie
exclaimed, giving him a little push so that she could go inside
the apartment.
Once again she had taken out her fear and
shyness on the unfortunate philosophy teacher. Sophie’s thoughts were
in a turmoil because of the postcard
she had found down in the hallway.
“Be calm, my child,” said Alberto, closing the door behind her.
“And here’s the mail,” she said,
handing him the postcard as if she
held him responsible for it.
Alberto
read it and shook his head.
“He gets more and more
audacious. I wouldn’t be surprised if he
isn’t using us as a kind of birthday diversion for his daughter.”
With that he tore the postcard into small pieces and threw them into
the wastepaper basket.
“It said that
Hilde has lost her crucifix,” said Sophie. “So I read.”
“And I found it, the same one, under my
pillow at home. Can you understand
how it got there?”
Alberto
looked gravely into her eyes.
“It may
seem alluring. But it’s just a cheap
trick that costs him no effort whatsoever. Let us rather concentrate on the big white
rabbit that is pulled out of the
universe’s top hat.”
They went
into the living room. It was one of
the most extraordinary rooms
Sophie had
ever seen.
Alberto lived in a spacious attic apartment
with sloping walls. A sharp light directly from the sky flooded the room from a
skylight set into one of the walls.
There was also another window facing
the town. Through this window Sophie
could look over all the roofs in the
Old Town.
But what amazed Sophie most was all the stuff
the room was filled with— furniture
and objects from various historical periods.
There was a sofa from the thirties,
an old desk from the beginning of the
century, and a chair that had to be hundreds of years old. But it wasn’t just the furniture. Old
objects, either useful or decorative, were jumbled
together on shelves and cupboards.
There were old clocks and vases, mortars and retorts, knives and dolls, quill pens and
bookends, octants and sextants, compasses and barometers. One entire wall
was covered with books, but not the
sort of books found in most bookstores. The book collection itself was a cross
section of the production of many
hundreds of years. On the other walls
hung drawings and paintings, some from recent decades, but most
of them also very old. There were a
lot of old charts and maps on the
walls too, and as far as Norway was concerned, they were not very accurate.
Sophie
stood for several minutes
without speaking and took everything in. “What a lot of old junk you’ve collected,”
she said.
“Now then! Just think of how many centuries of history
I have preserved in this room. I
wouldn’t exactly call it junk.”
“Do you
manage
an antique shop or something?” Alberto looked almost pained.
“We can’t all let
ourselves be washed away by the tide
of history, Sophie. Some of us must tarry in order to gather up what has
been left along the river banks.”
“What an odd thing to
say.”
“Yes, but none the less true, child. We do not live
in our own time alone; we carry our history within us. Don’t forget that
everything you see in this room was
once brand new. That old sixteenth-century wooden
doll might have been made for
a five-year-old girl’s birthday. By her old
grandfather, maybe... then she became a teenager, then an adult, and then she married.
Maybe she had a daughter of her own and gave the doll to her. She grew old, and one day she died. Although she had
lived for a very long time,
one day she was dead and gone. And she will never return.
Actually she was only here for a short visit.
But her doll—well, there it is on the shelf.”
“Everything sounds so sad and solemn
when you talk like that.”
“Life is both sad and solemn. We are let into a wonderful world, we meet one another here, greet
each other—and wander together for a brief moment.
Then we lose each other and disappear as suddenly and unreasonably as we
arrived.”
“May I
ask you something?”
“We’re not playing
hide-and-seek any more.” “Why
did you move into the major’s cabin?”
“So that we would not be so far from each
other, when we were only talking by letter. I knew the old cabin would be empty.”
“So you
just moved in?” “That’s right. I moved in.”
“Then maybe you can also explain how Hilde’s
father knew you were there.” “If I am right,
he knows practically everything.”
“But I still can’t understand at all how you get a mailman to deliver mail in the middle of
the woods!”
Alberto
smiled archly.
“Even things
like that are a pure bagatelle for
Hilde’s father. Cheap hocus- pocus, simple
sleight of hand. We are living under
what is possibly the world’s
closest surveillance.”
Sophie
could feel herself getting angry.
“If I
ever meet him, I’ll scratch his eyes out!”
Alberto walked over and sat down on the sofa.
Sophie followed and sank into a deep
armchair.
“Only philosophy can bring us closer to Hilde’s
father,” Alberto said at last. “Today I shall tell you about the Renaissance.”
“Shoot.”
“Not very long after St. Thomas Aquinas, cracks began to appear in the
unifying culture of Christianity. Philosophy
and science broke away more and more
from the theology of the Church, thus
enabling religious life to attain a
freer relationship to reasoning. More people now emphasized that we cannot reach God through rationalism because God is in all ways unknowable. The important thing for a man
was not to understand the divine mystery but to submit to God’s will.
“As religion and science
could now relate more freely to each other, the way was open both
to new scientific methods and a new
religious fervor. Thus the basis was created for two powerful upheavals in
the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, namely, the Renaissance
and the Reformation.”
“Can we
take them one at a time?”
“By the Renaissance we mean the rich cultural development that
began in the late fourteenth
century. It started in Northern Italy and spread rapidly northward
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.”
“Didn’t
you tell me that the word ‘renaissance’ meant rebirth?”
“I did indeed, and that which was to be
reborn was the art and culture of
antiquity. We also speak of Renaissance humanism, since now, after the long Dark Ages
in which every aspect of life was seen through divine light, everything once
again revolved around man. ‘Go to the source’ was the motto, and that meant the
hu- manism of antiquity first and foremost.
“It almost became
a popular pastime to dig up ancient sculptures and scrolls,
just as
it became fashionable to learn Greek.
The study of Greek humanism also had a pedagogical aim. Reading humanistic subjects provided
a ‘classical education’ and developed what
may be called human qualities. ‘Horses are born,’ it was said, ‘but human beings are not born—they are formed.’
“
“Do we
have to be educated to be human
beings?”
“Yes, that was
the thought. But before we take a
closer look at the ideas of Renaissance humanism, we must
say a little about the political and
cultural back- ground of the Renaissance.”
Alberto rose from
the sofa and began to wander about the room. After a while he paused and
pointed to an antique instrument on
one of the shelves.
“What is that?” he asked.
“It looks
like an old compass.” “Quite right.”
He then
pointed to an ancient firearm hanging on the wall above the sofa. “And that?”
“An old-fashioned
rifle.” “Exactly—and this?”
Alberto
pulled a large book off one
of the bookshelves. “It’s an old book.”
“To be
absolutely precise, it is an incunabulum.”
“An incunabulum?”
“Actually, it means
‘cradle.’ The word is used about
books printed in the cradle days of printing. That is, before 1500.”
“Is it
really that old?”
“That old, yes.
And these three discoveries—the
compass, firearms, and the printing
press—were essential preconditions
for this new period we call the Ren- aissance.”
“You’ll
have to explain that a bit more
clearly.”
“The compass made
it easier to navigate. In other words, it was the basis for the
great voyages of discovery. So were firearms
in a way. The new weapons gave the Europeans military
superiority over American and
Asiatic cultures, although firearms were also an important factor in Europe. Printing played an important
part in spreading the Renaissance humanists’
new ideas. And the art of printing was, not least, one of the factors that forced the Church to
relinquish its former position as sole disseminator of knowledge. New inventions and instruments began to follow thick
and fast.
One important instrument, for example, was the telescope, which resulted in a completely
new basis for astronomy.”
“And finally came
rockets and space probes.”
“Now you’re going too fast. But you could say that a process started in the
Renaissance finally brought people to the moon.
Or for that matter to Hiroshima and Chernobyl. However, it all began
with changes on the cultural and
economic front. An important
condition was the transition from a subsistence economy to a monetary economy. Toward the end of the Middle Ages, cities had developed, with effective
trades and a lively commerce of new goods,
a monetary
economy and banking. A middle class arose which developed a certain freedom with regard
to the basic conditions of life. Necessities became something that could be bought for money.
This state
of affairs rewarded people’s diligence, imagination,
and ingenuity. New demands were
made on the individual.”
“It’s a
bit like the way Greek cities developed
two thousand years earlier.” “Not altogether untrue. I told you how Greek
philosophy broke away from the
mythological world
picture that was linked to peasant culture. In
the same way, the Renaissance middle
class began to break away from the feudal lords and the power of the
church. As this was happening, Greek culture
was being rediscovered through a closer contact with the Arabs in Spain and the Byzantine culture in the
east.”
“The three
diverging streams from antiquity joined into one great river.” “You are an
attentive pupil. That gives you some background
on the
Renaissance. I shall now tell you about the new ideas.”
“Okay, but I’ll have to go home and
eat.”
Alberto
sat down on the sofa again.
He looked at Sophie.
“Above all else, the Renaissance resulted in a
new view of mankind. The humanism of the Renaissance brought a new belief in
man and
his worth, in striking contrast to
the biased medieval emphasis on the sinful nature of man.
Man was now considered infinitely great and valuable. One of the central figures of the
Renaissance was Marsilio Ficino, who exclaimed:
‘Know thyself, O divine lineage in mortal guise!’ Another central figure, Pica della Mirandola, wrote the Oration on the Dignity of Man,
something that would have been
unthinkable in the Middle Ages.
“Throughout the whole medieval
period, the point of departure had
always been
God. The humanists
of the Renaissance took as their
point of departure man himself.” “But so did the Greek philosophers.”
“That is precisely why we speak of a ‘rebirth’ of antiquity’s humanism.
But Renaissance humanism was to an even greater extent characterized by individualism. We are not only human
beings, we are unique individuals. This idea could then lead to an almost unrestrained worship of genius. The ideal became what we call the Renaissance man, a man of universal genius embracing all aspects of life, art, and science. The new view of man also manifested
itself in an interest
in the human
anatomy.
As in ancient times, people once
again began to dissect the dead to
discover how the body was constructed. It was imperative both for medical science and for art. Once again it
became usual for works of art to depict the nude. High time, after a
thousand years of prudery. Man was bold enough to be himself again. There was no longer anything to be ashamed of.”
“It sounds
intoxicating,” said Sophie, leaning her arms on the little table that stood between
her and the philosopher.
“Undeniably. The new view of mankind led to a whole new outlook. Man did not
exist purely for God’s sake. Man could therefore
delight in life here and now. And
with this new freedom to develop, the
possibilities were limitless. The aim was now to exceed all boundaries. This was
also a new idea, seen from the Greek
humanistic
point of view; the humanists of antiquity had emphasized the importance of tranquility, moderation, and restraint.”
“And the Renaissance humanists lost their restraint?”
“They were certainly not especially moderate. They
behaved as if the whole world had been reawakened.
They became intensely conscious of their epoch,
which is what led them to introduce the
term ‘Middle Ages’ to cover the centuries between antiquity and their own time.
There was an unrivaled development in
all spheres of life. Art and architecture, literature,
music, philosophy, and science
flourished as never before. I will mention
one concrete example. We have spoken of Ancient Rome, which
gloried in titles such as the ‘city
of cities’ and the ‘hub of the universe.’ During the Middle Ages the city declined, and by 1417 the old metropolis
had only 17,000 inhabitants.”
“Not much more than Lillesand, where
Hilde lives.”
“The Renaissance
humanists saw it as their cultural duty
to restore Rome: first
and foremost, to begin the construction of
the great St. Peter’s Church over the grave of Peter the Apostle. And
St. Peter’s Church can boast neither of moderation
nor restraint. Many great artists of the Renaissance took part in this building
project, the greatest in the world.
It began in 1506 and lasted for a hundred and twenty years, and
it took another fifty before the huge St.
Peter’s Square was completed.” “It must
be a gigantic church!”
“It is over 200 meters long and 130 meters high, and it covers an area of more than
16,000 square meters. But enough
about the boldness of Renaissance man.
It was also significant that the Renaissance brought with it a new view of
nature. The fact
that man felt at home in the world and did not consider
life solely as a preparation for the
hereafter, created a whole new
approach to the physical world. Nature was now regarded as a positive thing.
Many held the view that God was also
present in his creation. If he is indeed infinite,
he must be present in everything.
This idea is called pantheism. The medieval philosophers had insisted that there is an insurmountable
barrier between God and the Creation.
It could now be said that nature is divine—and even that it is ‘God’s blossoming.’
Ideas of this kind were not always
looked kindly on by the church. The fate of Gior-dano Bruno was a dramatic example
of this. Not only did he claim that
God was present in nature, he also believed that the universe was infinite in
scope. He was punished very severely
for his ideas.”
“How?”
“He was
burned at the stake in Rome’s Flower
Market in the year 1600.” “How horrible ... and stupid. And you call that humanism?”
“No, not at all. Bruno was the humanist,
not his executioners. During the Renaissance, what we call anti-humanism flourished
as well. By this I mean the
authoritarian power of State and Church.
During the Renaissance there was a tremendous
thirst for trying witches, burning
heretics, magic and superstition,
bloody religious wars—and not least, the brutal conquest of America. But humanism has always had a
shadow side. No epoch is either purely good or purely evil. Good and evil are
twin threads that run through the
history of mankind. And often they intertwine. This is not least true of our next key phrase, a new scientific method, another Renaissance innovation which I will tell you about.”
“Was
that when they built the first factories?”
“No, not yet. But a precondition for all the
technical development that took place after the Renaissance was the new scientific method.
By that I mean the completely new approach to what science was. The technical fruits of this method only became apparent later on.”
“What was this new method?”
“Mainly it was
a process of investigating nature with our own senses. Since the fourteenth
century there had been an increasing number
of thinkers who warned against blind faith in old authority, be it religious doctrine or the natural philosophy of Aristotle. There were also warnings against the belief that
problems can be solved purely by thinking. An exaggerated belief in the
importance of reason had been valid
all through the Middle Ages. Now it was said
that every investigation of natural phenomena must be based on observation, experience, and experiment. We call this the empirical method.”
“Which
means?”
“It only means that one bases one’s knowledge of
things on one’s own experience—and not on dusty parchments or figments of
the imagination. Empirical
science was known in antiquity, but systematic
experiments were something quite new.”
“I guess
they didn’t have any of the technical
apparatus we have today.” “Of course they had neither calculators nor
electronic scales. But they had
mathematics
and they had scales. And it was now
above all imperative to express scientific observations
in precise mathematical
terms. ‘Measure what can be
measured, and make measurable
what cannot be measured,’ said the Italian
Galileo Galilei, who was one of the most
important scientists of the seventeenth
century. He also said that the book
of nature is written in the language of mathematics.”
“And all
these experiments and measurements made new inventions possible.” “The
first phase was a new scientific method. This
made the technical
revolution itself possible, and the technical breakthrough opened the way
for every invention since. You could say that man
had begun to break away from his natural condition. Nature was no
longer something man
was simply a part of. ‘Knowledge is power,’ said the English
philosopher Francis Bacon, thereby underlining the practical value
of knowledge— and this was indeed new.
Man was seriously starting to intervene
in nature and beginning to control
it.”
“But not
only in a good way?”
“No, this is what I was referring to before
when I spoke of the good and the evil threads that are constantly intertwined
in everything we do. The technical revolution that began in the Renaissance led
to the spinning jenny and to unemployment, to medicines
and new diseases, to the improved
efficiency of agriculture and
the impoverishment of the environment,
to practical appliances such as the washing machine
and the refrigerator and pollution and
industrial waste. The serious threat
to the environment we are facing
today has made many people
see the technical revolution itself as a perilous maladjustment to natural conditions. It has been
pointed out that we have started something
we can no longer control. More
optimistic spirits think we are still living in the cradle of technology, and
that although the scientific
age has
certainly had its teething troubles, we will gradually learn to control nature
without at the same time threatening its very existence and thus
our own.”
“Which do you think?”
“I think perhaps there may
be some truth in both views. In some
areas we must stop interfering with nature,
but in others we can succeed. One
thing is certain: There is no way
back to the Middle Ages. Ever since the Renaissance, mankind has been more than just part of creation. Man has begun
to intervene in nature and form it
after his own image. In truth, ‘what a piece of work is man!’
“
“We have already been to
the moon. What medieval person would have believed such a thing possible?”
“No, that’s for
sure. Which brings us to the new
world view. All through the Middle Ages people had stood beneath the sky
and gazed up at the sun, the moon, the stars, and the planets. But
nobody had doubted that the earth was the center of the universe. No
observations had sown any doubt that the earth remained still while the
‘heavenly bodies’ traveled in
their orbits around it. We call this
the geocentric world picture, or in other words, the belief that everything
revolves around the earth. The Christian belief that God ruled from on high, up above all the heavenly bodies,
also contributed to maintaining
this world picture.”
“I wish
it were that simple!”
“But in 1543 a little book was published entitled On the Revolutions
of the Celestial Spheres. It was written by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who died on the
day the book was published. Copernicus
claimed that it was not
the sun that moved round the earth,
it was vice versa. He thought this
was completely possible from the observations of the heavenly bodies that existed. The reason people had
always believed that the sun went round the earth was that the earth turns on
its own axis, he said. He pointed out that all observations of heavenly bodies were far easier
to understand
if one assumed that both the earth and the other planets circle around the sun. We call this the heliocentric world picture, which means that everything
centers around
the sun.”
“And that
world picture was the right one?”
“Not entirely. His main point—that the earth
moves
round the sun—is of course correct. But he claimed that the sun was the
center of the universe. Today we know that the sun is only one of an infinite number of stars, and that all the stars around us make up only
one of many billions of galaxies.
Copernicus also believed that the
earth and the other planets moved in circular
orbits around the sun.”
“Don’t
they?”
“No. He had nothing on which to base his belief in the circular orbits other than
the ancient idea that heavenly bodies were round
and moved in circles simply because they were ‘heavenly.’ Since the
time of Plato the sphere and the
circle had been considered the most
perfect geometrical figures. But in
the early 1600s, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler presented the results
of comprehensive observations which
showed that the planets move in elliptical—or oval—orbits with the sun at one focus. He also pointed
out that the speed of a planet is
greatest when it is closest to the sun, and that the farther a planet’s orbit
is from the sun the slower it moves.
Not until Kepler’s time was it actually
stated
that the earth was a planet just like other
planets. Kepler also emphasized that the same physical
laws apply everywhere throughout the universe.”
“How could
he know that?”
“Because he had investigated the movements
of the planets with his own senses instead of blindly trusting ancient
superstitions. Galileo Galilei, who
was roughly contemporary with Kepler, also used a telescope
to observe the heavenly bodies. He studied the moon’s craters and said that the moon had mountains and
valleys similar to those on earth. Moreover, he discovered that the planet Jupiter had four moons. So
the earth was not alone in having a moon. But
the greatest significance of Galileo was that he first formulated
the so-called Law of Inertia.”
“And that is?”
“Galileo formulated it thus: A body remains in the state which it is in, at rest
or in motion, as long as no external
force compels it to change its state.”
“If you
say so.”
“But this was a significant observation. Since antiquity, one of the central
arguments against the earth moving round its own axis was that the
earth would then move so quickly that a stone hurled straight into the air
would fall yards away from the spot it was
hurled from.”
“So why
doesn’t it?”
“If you’re sitting in a train and you drop an
apple, it doesn’t fall backward
because the train is moving. It falls
straight down. That is because of
the law of inertia. The apple retains exactly the same speed it had
before you dropped it.”
“I think
I understand.”
“Now in Galileo’s time
there were no trains. But if you
roll a ball along the ground—and suddenly let go...”
“... it
goes on rolling ...”
“... because
it retains its speed after you let
go.”
“But it
will stop eventually, if the room is long enough.”
“That’s because other forces slow it down. First, the floor, especially if it is a
rough wooden floor. Then the force of gravity will sooner or later bring it
to a halt. But wait, I’ll show you something.”
Alberto Knox got up and went over to the old desk.
He took something out of one of the
drawers. When he returned to his place he put it on the coffee table. It was
just a
wooden board, a few millimeters thick at one end and thin at the other. Beside the board, which almost
covered the whole table, he laid a green marble.
“This is
called an inclined plane,” he said. “What
do you think will happen if I
let go the marble up here, where the plane is
thickest?” Sophie sighed resignedly.
“I bet
you ten crowns it rolls down onto the
table and ends on the floor.” “Let’s see.”
Alberto let go of the marble and it behaved exactly as Sophie had said. It rolled
onto the table, over the tabletop, hit
the floor with a little thud and
finally bumped into the wall.
“Impressive,”
said Sophie.
“Yes, wasn’t
it! This was the kind of experiment Galileo did, you see.” “Was
he really that stupid?”
“Patience! He wanted to investigate things with all his senses, so we have only
just begun. Tell me first why the marble
rolled down the inclined plane.”
“It began to roll because it was heavy.”
“All right.
And what is weight actually, child?”
“That’s a silly question.”
“It’s not a silly question if you can’t answer
it. Why did the marble roll onto the floor?”
“Because
of gravity.”
“Exactly—or gravitation, as we also say. Weight has something to do with gravity. That was the force that set the marble in motion.”
Alberto had already picked the marble up
from the floor. He stood bowed over
the inclined plane with the marble
again.
“Now I shall try to roll the marble
across the plane,” he said. “Watch
carefully how it moves.”
Sophie watched as the marble gradually curved
away and was drawn down the incline.
“What happened?” asked Alberto.
“It rolled sloping
because the board is sloping.”
“Now I’m going
to brush the marble with ink ... then
perhaps we can study exactly what you mean
by sloping.”
He dug out an ink brush and painted the whole marble
black. Then he rolled it again. Now Sophie could see exactly where on the plane the marble had rolled because it had left a black line on the board.
“How would you describe the marble’s path?” “It’s curved ... it looks like part of a circle.” “Precisely.”
Alberto
looked up at her and raised his eyebrows.
“However, it is not quite a circle. This
figure is called a parabola.” “That’s fine with me.”
“Ah, but
why did the marble travel
in precisely that way?”
Sophie thought
deeply. Then she said, “Because the board was
sloping, the marble was drawn toward
the floor by the force of gravity.”-
“Yes, yes! This
is nothing less than a sensation! Here I go, dragging a girl who’s not yet fifteen up to my attic, and she realizes exactly the same thing
Galileo did after one single experiment!”
He clapped his hands. For a moment Sophie was afraid he had gone mad. He continued: “You saw what happened
when two forces worked simultaneously
on the
same
object. Galileo discovered that
the same thing applied, for instance, to a cannonball. It is propelled into the air, it continues
its path over the earth, but will
eventually be drawn toward the earth. So it will have described a trajectory
corresponding to the marble’s path
across the inclined plane. And this
was actually a new discovery at the time of Galileo. Aristotle thought that a projectile hurled obliquely into the air would first
describe a gentle curve and then fall vertically
to the earth. This was not so, but nobody
could know Aristotle was wrong before it had been demonstrated.”
“Does all
this really matter?”
“Does it matter? You
bet it matters! This has cosmic significance, my child. Of all the scientific discoveries in the history
of mankind, this is positively the
most important.”
“I’m sure
you are going to tell me why.”
“Then along
came the English physicist Isaac Newton, who lived from 1642 to
1727. He
was the one who provided the final description
of the solar system and the
planetary orbits. Not only could he describe
how the planets moved round the sun, he could also explain why they did so. He
was able to do so partly by referring to what we call Galileo’s dynamics.”
“Are the
planets marbles on an inclined plane then?” “Something
like that, yes. But wait a bit, Sophie.” “Do I have
a choice?”
“Kepler had already pointed out that there had to
be a force that caused the
heavenly bodies to attract each other. There had to be, for example, a solar
force which held the planets fast in their orbits.
Such a force would moreover explain why the planets moved more slowly in their orbit the further
away from the sun they traveled. Kepler also believed that the
ebb and flow of the tides— the rise
and fall in sea level—must be the result of a lunar force.”
“And that’s
true.”
“Yes, it’s
true. But it was a theory Galileo rejected. He mocked Kepler, who he said had given his
approval to the idea that the moon
rules the water. That was be- cause Galileo rejected the idea that the
forces of gravitation could work over great distances, and also between the heavenly bodies.”
“He was
wrong there.”
“Yes. On that particular point he was wrong. And that was funny, really,
because he was very preoccupied with
the earth’s gravity and
falling bodies. He had even
indicated how increased force can
control the movement of a body.”
“But you
were talking about Newton.”
“Yes, along came
Newton. He formulated what we call the Law of Universal Gravitation. This law
states that every object attracts
every other object with a force that
increases in proportion to the size of the objects and decreases in proportion
to the distance between the
objects.”
“I think I understand. For example, there
is greater attraction between two elephants
than there is between two mice. And there is
greater attraction between two elephants in the same zoo than there is between
an Indian elephant in India and an African elephant in Africa.”
“Then you have understood it. And now comes the central point. Newton proved that
this attraction—or gravitation—is universal,
which means it is operative
everywhere, also in space between heavenly bodies. He is
said to have gotten this idea while he was sitting under an apple tree. When
he saw an apple fall from the tree
he had to ask himself if the moon was
drawn to earth with the same force, and if this was
the reason why the moon continued to orbit
the earth to all eternity.” “Smart.
But not so smart really.”
“Why not, Sophie?”
“Well, if the moon was drawn to the earth with the same force that causes the apple to fall, one
day the moon would come crashing to earth instead of going round
and round it for ever.”
“Which brings us to
Newton’s law on planetary orbits. In the case of how the earth attracts the moon, you are fifty percent right but fifty percent
wrong. Why doesn’t the moon fall to earth? Because it really is true that the earth’s gravitational force
attracting the moon is tremendous. Just
think
of the force required to lift sea level a meter or two at high tide.”
“I don’t
think I understand.”
“Remember Galileo’s inclined plane.
What happened when I rolled the marble across it?”
“Are there
two different forces working on the moon?”
“Exactly. Once
upon a time when the solar system began,
the moon was hurled outward—outward
from the earth, that is—with tremendous force. This force will remain in effect forever because it moves in a vacuum without resistance...”
“But it
is also attracted to the earth because
of earth’s gravitational force, isn’t
it?”
“Exactly. Both
forces are constant, and both work
simultaneously. Therefore the
moon will continue to orbit the earth.” “Is it really as simple as that?”
“As simple
as that, and this very same simplicity
was Newton’s whole point. He demonstrated
that a few natural laws apply to the
whole universe. In calculating the
planetary orbits he had merely
applied two natural laws which Galileo had already proposed.
One was the law of inertia, which Newton expressed thus: ‘A body remains in its
state of rest or rectilinear
motion until it is compelled to
change that state by a force
impressed on it.’ The
other law had been demonstrated by Galileo on an
inclined
plane: When two forces work on
a body simultaneously, the body will move
on an elliptical path.”
“And that’s
how Newton could explain why all the
planets go round the sun.” “Yes. All the planets travel in elliptical orbits round the sun as the result of two
unequal
movements: first, the
rectilinear movement they had when the solar system was formed,
and second, the movement toward the sun due to gravitation.”
“Very clever.”
“Very. Newton demonstrated
that the same laws of moving bodies apply
everywhere in the entire universe.
He thus did away with the medieval belief that there is one set of
laws for heaven and another here on earth. The heliocentric world view had
found its final confirmation and its
final explanation.”
Alberto got up and put the inclined plane away
again. He picked up the marble and
placed it on the table between them.
Sophie thought it was amazing how much they had gotten out of a bit of slanting
wood and a marble. As she looked at the green marble, which was still smudged
with ink, she couldn’t help thinking
of the earth’s globe. She said, “And people just had to accept that they were living on a random planet somewhere
in space?”
“Yes—the new world view was in many ways a great
burden. The situation was comparable
to what happened later on when
Darwin proved that mankind had devel-
oped from animals. In both cases mankind
lost some of its special status in creation.
And in
both cases the Church put up a massive
resistance.”
“I can well understand that. Because where
was God in all this new stuff? It
was simpler when the earth was the center and God and the planets were upstairs.”
“But that
was not the greatest challenge. When
Newton had proved that the
same
natural laws applied everywhere in the
universe, one might think that he thereby undermined people’s faith in God’s omnipotence. But Newton’s own faith was never
shaken. He regarded the natural laws as proof of the existence of the great and
almighty
God. It’s possible that man’s picture of himself fared worse.”
“How do
you mean?”
“Since the Renaissance, people have had to get used to living their life on a
random planet in the vast galaxy. I
am not sure we have wholly accepted it even now. But there were those even in
the Renaissance who said that every single one of us
now had a more central position than before.”
“I don’t quite understand.”
“Formerly, the earth was the center of the
world. But since astronomers now said
that there was no absolute center to
the universe, it came to be thought
that there were just as many centers
as there were people. Each person
could be the center of a universe.”
“Ah, I
think I see.”
“The Renaissance resulted in a new religiosity. As philosophy and science
gradually broke away from theology, a
new Christian piety developed. Then the Ren- aissance arrived with its
new view of man. This had its effect
on religious life. The individual’s personal relationship to God was now more important than his rela-
tionship to the church as an organization.”
“Like saying
one’s prayers at night, for instance?”
“Yes, that too.
In the medieval Catholic
Church, the church’s liturgy in Latin
and the church’s ritual prayers had been the backbone of the religious service. Only priests and monks read the Bible
because it only existed in Latin.
But during the Renaissance, the Bible was
translated from Hebrew and Greek
into national lan- guages. It was
central to what we call the
Reformation.”
“Martin
Luther...”
“Yes, Martin Luther was important, but he was not the only reformer. There were also
ecclesiastical reformers
who chose to remain within the Roman Catholic church. One of them
was Erasmus of Rotterdam.”
“Luther broke with the Catholic Church because he wouldn’t buy indulgences,
didn’t he?”
“Yes, that was
one of the reasons. But there was a more
important
reason. According to Luther, people did not need the intercession of the church or its priests in order to receive
God’s forgiveness. Neither was
God’s forgiveness dependent on the buying of ‘indulgences’ from the church. Trading in these so-called
letters of indulgence was forbidden by the Catholic Church from the middle of the sixteenth century.”
“God was
probably glad of that.”
“In general, Luther distanced himself from many of the religious customs and dogmas
that had become rooted in ecclesiastical
history during the Middle Ages. He wanted to return
to early Christianity as it
was in the New Testament. The Scripture alone,’ he said. With this slogan Luther wished to
return to the ‘source’ of Chris- tianity, just as the Renaissance humanists had wanted to turn to the ancient sources of art
and culture. Luther translated the Bible
into German, thereby founding the German written language. He believed every man should be able to read the Bible and
thus in
a sense
become his own priest.”
“His own
priest? Wasn’t that taking it a bit
far?”
“What he meant was that
priests had no preferential position
in relation to God. The Lutheran
congregations employed priests for practical reasons, such as conduct-
ing services and attending to the
daily clerical tasks, but Luther did
not believe that anyone received God’s forgiveness and redemption from sin through church rituals. Man received ‘free’ redemption
through faith alone, he said. This
was a belief he arrived at by reading the Bible.”
“So Luther
was also a typical Renaissance man?”
“Yes and no. A characteristic Renaissance
feature was his emphasis on the individual and the individual’s personal relationship to God. So he taught himself Greek at the age of thirty-five and began the laborious job of translating the Bible from the ancient Greek version into German. Allowing the language of the people
to take precedence over Latin was also a characteristic Renaissance feature. But Luther
was not
a humanist like Ficino or Leonardo da
Vinci. He was also opposed by human-
ists such as Erasmus of Rotterdam because they thought
his view of man
was far too negative; Luther had proclaimed
that mankind was totally depraved
after
the Fall from Grace. Only through the grace of God could mankind be ‘justified,’ he believed. For
the wages of sin is death.”
“That sounds
very gloomy.”
Alberto Knox rose. He picked up the little green and black marble and put it in his top pocket.
“It’s after
four!” Sophie exclaimed in horror.
“And the next great epoch in the history of mankind
is the Baroque. But we shall have to keep that
for another day, my dear Hilde.”
“What
did you say?” Sophie shot up from the chair she had been sitting in.
“You called me Hilde!”
“That was a serious slip of the tongue.”
“But a
slip of the tongue is never wholly accidental.”
“You may
be right. You’ll notice that Hilde’s
father has begun to put words in our mouths.
I think he is exploiting the fact
that we are getting weary and are not defending ourselves very well.”
“You said
once that you are not Hilde’s
father. Is that really true?” Alberto
nodded.
“But am I Hilde?”
“I’m tired now, Sophie. You have to understand
that. We have been sitting here for
over two hours, and I have been doing most
of the talking. Don’t you have to go home
to eat?”
Sophie felt almost
as if he was trying to throw her
out. As she went into the little hall, she thought intensely about why he had made that slip. Alberto came out after her.
Hermes was lying
asleep under a small row of pegs on
which hung several strange-looking garments
that could have been theatrical costumes. Alberto nodded toward the dog and said, “He will come
and fetch you.”
“Thank
you for my lesson,” said
Sophie.
She gave Alberto an impulsive hug. “You’re
the best and kindest philosophy teacher I’ve ever had,” she said.
With that she opened the
door to the staircase. As the door
closed, Alberto said, “It won’t be long before we meet again, Hilde.”
Sophie
was left with those words.
Another slip of the tongue, the villain! Sophie had a strong desire to turn around
and hammer on the door but something
held her back.
On reaching the street she remembered
that she had no money on her. She
would have
to walk all the long way home. How annoying! Her mother would be both angry and worried if
she didn’t get back by six, that was
for sure.
She had not gone more than a few yards when she suddenly noticed a coin on the
sidewalk. It was ten crowns, exactly
the price of a bus ticket.
Sophie found her way to the bus stop and waited for a bus to the Main Square. From there she could take a bus on the same
ticket and ride almost to her door.
Not until she
was standing at the Main Square waiting for the second bus did she
begin to wonder why she had been lucky
enough to find the coin just when she needed it.
Could Hilde’s father have left it there? He was a master
at leaving things in the
most convenient places.
How could
he, if he was in Lebanon?
And why
had Alberto made that slip? Not
once but twice! Sophie shivered. She felt a
chill run down her spine.
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